UNIVERSITY  OF    CALIFORNIA    PUBLICATIONS. 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA. 


GRAPE  CULTURE  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

(its  difficulties;  phylloxera  and  resistant  vines; 
other  vine  diseases.) 

By  FREDERIC  T.  BIOLETTI. 


IMPROVED  METHODS  OF  WINE  MAKING. 

By  FREDERIC  T.  BIOLETTI. 

YEASTS  FROM  CALIFORNIA  GRAPES. 

By  HANS  C.  HOLM. 


Rupestris   St.    George. 

BULLETIN     No.     197 

(Berkeley,  July,  1908.) 


SACRAMENTO: 
w.  w.  shannon,     :     :     :      :     superintendent  state  printing. 

1908. 


y 


BENJAMIN  IDE  WHEELER,   Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  the   University. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF. 

E.  J.  WICKSON,  M.A.,  Director  and  Horticulturist. 

E.  W.  HILGARD,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Chemist. 

W.  A.  SETCHELL,   Ph.D.,  Botanist. 

ELWOOD  MEAD,  M.S.,  C.E.,  Irrigation  Engineer.      (Absent  on  leave.) 

LEROY  ANDERSON,  Ph.D.,  Dairy  Industry  and  Superintendent  University  Farm. 

M.  E.  JAFFA,  M.S.,  Nutrition  Expert,  in  charge  of  the  Poultry  Station. 

C.  W.  WOODWORTH,  M.S.,  Entomologist. 

R.  H.  LOUGHRIDGE,  Ph.D.,  Soil  Chemist  and  Physicist. 

G.  W.  SHAW,  M.A.,   Ph.D.,  Agricultural  Technologist,  in  charge  of  Cereal  Stations 

GEORGE  E.   COLBY,  M.S.,   Chemist,  in  charge  of  Agricultural  Chemical  Laboratory. 

RALPH  E.  SMITH,  B.S.,  Plant  Pathologist  and  Superintendent  of  Southern  California 

Pathological  Laboratory  and  Experiment  Station.      Whittier. 
A.   R.   WARD,   B.S.A.,   D.V.M.,   Veterinarian  and  Bacteriologist. 
E.  W.  MAJOR,  B.Agr.,  Animal  Industry. 
H.  M.  HALL,  M.S.,  Assistant  Botanist. 

H.  J.  QUAYLE,  A.B.,  Assistant  Entomologist.     Whittier.  • 

W.    T.    CLARKE,    B.S.,    Assistant    Horticulturist    and    Superintendent    of    University 

Extension  in  Agriculture. 
JOHN  S.  BURD,  B.S.,  Chemist,  in  charge  of  Fertiliser  Control. 
C.  M.  HARING,  D.V.M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian  and  Bacteriologist. 
H.  A.  HOPPER,  B.S.A.,  Assistant  in  Dairy  Husbandry. 
J.  H.  NORTON,  M.S.,  Assistant  Chemist  in  charge  Fertilizer  ) 

Experiments,  I      Citrus  Experiment 

T.   F.  HUNT,  B.S.,  Assistant  Horticulturist,  )  Station,  Riverside. 

E.  B.  BABCOCK,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

E.  H.  SMITH,  M.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

F.  L.  YEAW,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

H.  J.  RAMSEY,  M.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist, )        Southern  California  Patholog- 

C.  O.   SMITH,   M.S.,  "  "  "  )  teal  Laboratory,  Whittier. 
R.  E.  MANSELL,  Assistant  in  Horticulture,  in  charge  of  Central  Station  Grounds. ' 
RALPH  BENTON,  B.S.,  B.L.,  Assistant  in  Entomology  (Apiculture) . 

A.  J.  GAUMNITZ,  M.S.,  Assistant  in  Cereal  Investigations. 

RACHAEL  CORR,  M.A.,  Assistant  in  Cereal  Laboratory. 

HANS  C.  HOLM,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Zymology. 

P.  L.  McCREARY,  B.S.,  Laboratory  Assistant  in  Fertilizer  Control. 

F.  E.  JOHNSON,  B.  L.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Laboratory. 

M.  E.  STOVER,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemical  Laboratory. 

D.  R.  HOAGLAND,  A.B.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemical  Laboratory. 
CHARLES  FUCHS,  Curator  Entomological  Museum. 

P.  L.  HIBBARD,  B.S.,  Assistant  Fertilizer  Control  Laboratory. 

M.  E.  SHERWIN,  Field  Assistant  in  Agronomy. 

W.  H.  VOLCK,  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology.     Watsonville. 

E.  L.  MORRIS,  B.S.,  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology.     San  Jose. 
J.  S.  HUNTER,  Field  Assistant' in  Entomology.     San  Mateo. 

D.  L.  BUNNELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 


JOHN  TUOHY,  Patron.  I  Tulare  Su})station>  Tulare. 

J.  T.  BEARSS,  Foreman,       ) 

i  T^'  SP/t^  Patron>  University  Forestry  Station,  Chico. 

E.  C.  MILLER,  In  charge,    S 

ROY  JONES,  Patron,  \  „    .         ,.      _         #        _    ,,         „  „,     J 

N.  D.  INGHAM,  Foreman.    \  University  Forestry  Station,  Santa  Monica. 

VINCENT     J.     HUNTLEY,     Foreman     of     California    Poultry     Experiment     Station, 
Petaluma. 

The  Station  publications  (Reports  and  Bulletins),  so  long  as  avail- 
able, will  be  sent  to  any  citizen  of  the  State  on  application. 


GRAPE  CULTURE  IN  CALIFORNIA 


By  F.  T.  BIOLETTI. 


WORK   OF  THE  STATION. 

The  growing  of  grapes  and  the  industries  based  thereon  are  in  a 
peculiar  sense  Californian.  California  produces,  approximately,  all 
the  raisins,  three  quarters  of  the  wine,  and  a  large  share  of  the  ship- 
ping grapes  of  the  United  States. 

All  these  industries  have  increased  in  importance  with  a  steady  and 
healthy  growth  during  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  and  during  the 
last  ten  years  the  increase  has  been  about  75%.  The  new  plantations 
have  been  particularly  numerous  and  extensive  during  the  last  five 
years.  At  present  there  are  over  200,000  acres  of  vineyard  in  the  State, 
and  the  prospects  of  continued  expansion  are  favorable. 

The  growing  of  grapes  has  many  practical  and  sentimental  attrac- 
tions both  for  capitalists  and  small  farmers.  No  other  branch  of 
agriculture  offers  more  certainty  of  steady,  profitable  returns  for 
invested  capital,  and  none  offers  superior  inducements  to  the  owner 
of  a  few  acres  of  land  in  his  effort  to  make  a  pleasant  and  adequate 
living  by  his  own  labor. 

There  is  very  little  of  the  arable  land  of  California  which  is  not 
capable  of  producing  abundant  crops  of  good  grapes,  and  the  future 
output  will  be  limited  only  by  the  demand  and  extent  of  the  market. 

The  very  attractiveness  of  viticulture  and  the  peculiar  suitability 
of  California  for  its  development  involve  dangers  which  must  be 
avoided  if  we  are  to  reap  the  best  results  from  our  advantages.  A 
very  large  proportion  of  our  new  arrivals  and  settlers  engage  in 
some  branch  of  grape-growing.  Most  of  them  have  no  knowledge  of 
the  business,  or  have  preconceived  ideas  which  are  incompatible 
with  our  conditions.  These  conditions  are  so  different  from  those 
of  the  Eastern  States,  and  even  from  those  of  most  of  the  grape-grow- 
ing regions  of  Europe,  that  grape-growers  from  New  York,  Bordeaux, 
Burgundy  or  the  Rhingau  often  fail  to  obtain  better  results  than 
those  who  have  had  no  previous  practical  experience  in  cultivating  the 
vine. 


116  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

In  spite  of  California's  superb  advantages  as  a  grape-growing 
region,  statistics  show  that  our  average  crop  per  acre  is  considerably 
less  than  that  of  Algeria  or  many  parts  of  the  south  of  France, 
and  is  hardly  superior  to  that  of  Burgundy  or  the  Rhingau.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  crops  on  our  best  vineyards,  vineyards  which  are 
handled  properly,  with  due  regard  to  our  special  conditions,  are 
unexcelled  anywhere  in  the  world. 

Two  things,  therefore,  are  urgently  needed.  First,  the  diffusion  of 
special  viticultural  and  enological  knowledge,  and  second,  the  scien- 
tific and  practical  investigation  of  our  peculiar  problems.  Since  1876 
the  Agricultural  College  at  Berkeley  has  given  more  or  less  attention 
to  the  work  of  instruction  and  research  in  viticulture.  At  first  Prof. 
E.  W.  Hilgard  conducted  this  work  almost  single-handed,  and,  as  in 
so  many  other  departments  of  agriculture,  laid  the  solid  foundations 
which  have  contributed  so  much  to  the  improvement  of  our  cultural 
methods.  From  1880  to  1894  the  Viticultural  Commission  did  much 
to  instruct  our  grape-growers  and  wine-makers  in  the  theory  and 
practice  of  their  arts. 

Since  1894  the  only  institution  in  California — in  fact,  in  the  United 
States — which  has  given  special  attention  to  viticulture  has  been  the 
Agricultural  College  and  Experiment  Station  of  the  University  of 
California.  The  work  has  been  carried  on  somewhat  spasmodically, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  regular  appropriations.  At  some  sessions  of  the 
Legislature  provision  has  been  made  for  this  purpose;  at  others  it  has 
been  omitted. 

This  uncertainty  of  support  makes  much  of  the  work  which  ought 
to  be  done  impossible,  and  all  of  it  more  difficult.  Experiments  are 
commenced,  observers  are  trained,  but,  before  the  most  valuable  results 
are  obtained,  the  work  has  to  cease  for  lack  of  funds.  When  a  new 
appropriation  is  made,  new  observers  have  to  be  trained  and  much 
of  the  experiment  work  has  to  be  recommenced.  This  results  in  loss 
of  time  and  efficiency  and  a  much  smaller  output  of  valuable  infor- 
mation than  would  be  possible  if  there  could  be  more  continuity  in 
the  work. 

The  Legislature  of  1905  set  aside  $10,000  for  the  furtherance  of 
viticultural  research  during  the  two  years  commencing  July  1,  1905, 
and  a  considerable  amount  of  progress  has  been  made. 

Besides  the  work  of  investigation  carried  out  under  the  provisions 
of  the  bill  passed  by  the  last  Legislature,  the  regular  viticultural  work 
of  the  University  has  been  carried  on.  This  work  is,  in  the  main  part, 
educational.  It  consists  of  courses  in  grape-growing  and  wine-making 
to  regular  students,  and  short  courses  in  the  same  subjects  to  special 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  117 

students.  Short  courses  and  viticultural  institutes  have  also  been 
given,  so  far  as  our  time  and  resources  have  allowed,  for  the  benefit 
of  those  actually  employed  in  the  industry. 

The  short  courses  at  Berkeley  to  grape-growers  and  wine-makers 
actively  engaged  in  the  occupations  have  not  been  a  success,  owing  to 
the  small  number  who  have  been  able  to  leave  their  work  long  enough 
to  attend  them.  The  special  viticultural  institutes,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  met  with  a  success  that  is  very  encouraging. 

These  institutes  are  given,  so  far  as  possible,  in  any  viticultural  center 
wherever  a  sufficient  demand  is  manifested  and  the  traveling  expenses 
of  speakers  is  borne  by  the  Farmers'  Institute  appropriation.  They 
last  either  one  or  two  days,  usually  Saturday,  or  Friday  and  Saturday. 
They  are  not  only  confined  strictly  to  viticulture,  but  attempt  to  treat 
only  one  particular  part  of  this  subject.  The  part  chosen  is,  so  far  as 
practicable,  one  of  actual  interest  at  the  season  when  the  institute 
takes  place. 

The  plan  adopted  is  to  accompany  the  lectures  by  practical  demon- 
stration in  the  vineyard.  Two  or  three  hours  in  the  morning  are 
usually  all  that  are  devoted  to  lectures.  The  afternoon  is  spent  in  the 
vineyards,  where  the  ideas  developed  in  the  lectures  are  put  into 
practice.  An  evening  session  is  sometimes  held  to  discuss  the  work 
of  the  day  or  to  treat  some  subject  unsuited  to  field  demonstration. 

An  attempt  is  always  made  to  adapt  the  instruction  to  the  imme- 
diate needs  of  the  locality  and  season,  and  to  the  time  available.  The 
principal  topics  which  so  far  have  been  taken  up  at  these  viticultural 
institutes  are  the  following: 

1.  Starting  a  new  vineyard. 

2.  Pruning  table  grapes. 

3.  Pruning  wine  grapes. 

4.  Pruning  raisin  grapes. 

5.  Pruning  young  vines. 

6.  Oidium  of  the  vine  and  methods  of  control. 

7.  The  phylloxera  of  the  vine. 

8.  Resistant  vines. 

9.  Methods  of  grafting. 

10.  New  varieties  of  grapes. 

11.  Fertilization  of  vineyards. 

Another  important  phase  cf  the  viticultural  activities  of  the 
University  consists  in  an  ever-increasing  correspondence  with  grape- 
growers  and  wine-makers.  Advice  is  given,  suggestions  made,  and, 
where  practicable,  vineyards  and  cellars  are  visited  on  request. 


118  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

Perhaps  the  most  effective  part  of  our  work  at  present  consists  of 
spreading  the  knowledge,  gained  in  the  older  districts  by  veteran 
growers,  among  new  arrivals  and  in  new  districts.  The  repetition  of 
costly  mistakes  is  thus  often  prevented.  More  of  this  work  should  be 
done,  but  the  small  number  of  observers  and  experts  prevents  very 
great  expansion  at  present.  Instead  of  two  or  three  trained  viticultur- 
ists,  the  extent  of  California  and  the  magnitude  of  its  industries  require 
a  dozen.  It  is  to  be  desired  that  an  efficient  expert,  trained  in  the 
science  and  practice  of  grape-growing  and  wine-making,  should  be 
stationed  in  every  large  viticultural  section,  ready  to  advise  all  who 
apply.  The  expense  would  be  compensated  a  hundredfold  by  prevent- 
ing the  frequent  repetition  of  many  costly  mistakes.  Easily  avoidable 
loss  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  occur  every  year  through 
ignorance  of  the  best  methods  of  pruning,  grafting,  sulfuring,  ferment- 
ing, packing,  and  all  the  various  operations  of  the  vineyard  and  cellar. 

Men  suitable  for  such  work  in  California  are  difficult  to  find.  It 
requires  an  amount  of  practical  experience  and  technical  training 
which  few  possess.  These  requirements  must,  moreover,  be  coupled 
with  personal  qualifications  of  industry  and  judgment  that  make  their 
possessors  too  valuable  in  other  pursuits  to  make  it  possible  to  retain 
them  unless  they  can  be  assured  continuous  employment  at  good 
salaries. 

Publications  of  the  Viticultural  Department. — In  the  period  of  three 
years  from  January  1,  1905,  to  December  31,  1907,  ten  bulletins  and  five 
circulars  have  been  published  by  the  Viticultural  Department.  These 
represent  the  principal  portion  of  the  work  which  has  been  so  far 
completed  as  to  be  of  immediate  use  to  growers  and  wine-makers. 
Minor  topics  and  incomplete  investigations  are  discussed  shortly  in 
the  present  bulletin. 

PHYLLOXERA. 

This  vine  disease  is  well  established  now  in  nearly  every  large  grape- 
growing  section,  except  those  of  southern  California.  There  are  still 
large  areas  of  vineyard,  however,  in  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento 
valleys  which  have  thus  far  escaped  the  pest.  The  slowness  with  which 
it  has  spread  in  these  regions  is  remarkable  when  we  compare  it  with 
the  rapidity  with  which  vineyards  were  attacked  and  destroyed  in 
Europe,  and  also  in  Sonoma,  Napa,  Santa  Clara  and  other  of  the  coast 
counties. 

There  are  several  obvious  reasons  which  account  in  part  for  this 
slow  extension.  The  various  grape-growing  districts  are  scattered 
throughout  a  wide  plain,  more  or  less  isolated  from  each  other  by 
miles  of  grain  or  pasture  lands. 


KULLETIN   197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  119 

Many  of  the  vineyards  are  planted  in  sandy  soil,  where  the  progress 
of  the  pest  is  always  slow.  The  natural  power  of  resistance  to  this 
disease  possessed  by  the  Flame  Tokay,  though  not  sufficient  alone  to 
save  it  permanently,  is  no  doubt  a  factor  in  saving  vineyards  of  this 
variety  from  rapid  destruction.  There  seems  some  reason  to  believe 
that  this  variety  under  special  conditions,  when  growing  in  deep, 
rich  soil,  especially  if  somewhat  sandy,  might  be  kept  sufficiently  vigor- 
ous by  careful  cultivation  and  fertilization  indefinitely.  It  would 
be  unsafe  to  trust  to  this  for  immunity,  however,  unless  the  vineyard 
were  situated  where  it  could,  if  necessary,  be  given  a  winter  sub- 
mersion of  three  or  four  weeks  every  few  years. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose,  however,  that  rich  soil  or  ordinary  irriga- 
tion give  any  practical  degree  of  immunity.  Vineyards  in  the  richest 
and  most  copiously  irrigated  regions  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  have 
already  been  destroyed  by  the  pest.  What  the  effect  of  alkaline  soil 
has  in  this  respect  is  as  yet  undetermined. 

When  we  have  made  every  allowance  for  the  known  factors  which 
operate  to  delay  the  spread  of  the  Phylloxera  in  the  great  central 
valleys  of  California,  they  do  not  seem  sufficient  to  completely  account 
for  its  slowness.  Even  the  fact  that  the  vineyards  and  wine-growing 
regions  are  widely  separated  by  fields  where  no  vines  grow  is  insuffi- 
cient to  account  for  the  slow  spread  of  the  insect,  when  we  know  that 
the  winged  form  may  be  transported  by  the  wind  20  or  30  miles  and 
still  infect  the  vine  on  which  it  is  deposited. 

The  most  plausible  theory  seems  to  be  that  the  winged  form  is 
absent  or  extremely  rare  in  the  interior  of  California.  In  fact,  the 
winged  form  is  produced  most  abundantly  on  American  species  of 
vines,  growing  in  cool,  moist  situations,  and  especially  when  rains 
occur  in  June  and  July.  As  such  conditions  never  occur  in  the 
interior  valleys,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  winged  form  should  be  rare. 
No  record  exists  of  winged  individuals  having  been  seen  in  California 
except  in  the  coast  valleys. 

If  this  theory  is  correct,  the  only  means  the  insect  has  of  spreading 
from  one  vineyard  to  another  in  the  great  valleys  is  by  crawling  from 
vine  to  vine  or  by  being  carried  on  cuttings  or  roots.  This  makes  the 
delay  of  the  extension  of  the  pest  by  proper  quarantine  measures  par- 
ticularly useful  and  effective. 

These  measures  are  of  two  kinds — those  which  can  be  carried  out 
by  each  grape-grower  himself,  and  those  which  require  the  enforcement 
of  ordinances  by  quarantine  officers.  The  first  are  as  important  and 
more  generally  practicable  than  the  last. 

If  no  winged  insects  occur  there  is  no  danger  of  introducing  the 


120  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

pest  on  cuttings,  for  these  never  carry  the  root  form.  As  their  absence, 
however,  is  not  proved  anywhere,  and  as  cuttings  may  come  from 
regions  where  they  do  exist,  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  disinfect  all 
cuttings  before  planting. 

Disinfection  of  Cuttings. — The  easiest  and  most  effective  method 
for  the  use  of  the  grape-grower  is  by  means  of  bisulfid  of  carbon. 

The  method  of  using  the  bisulfid  is  as  follows :  Place  the  cuttings 
in  a  barrel  or  vat  or  a  box  made  tight  by  means  of  a  thick  coat  of 
paint  or  of  paper  pasted  on  the  inside.  On  top  of  the  cuttings  place 
a  saucer  or  other  shallow  dish,  into  which  to  pour  the  bisulfid  of 
carbon.  An  ordinary  saucer  will  hold  enough  for  a  box  of  27  cubic  feet 
or  a  200-gallon  vat.  For  larger  receptacles  it  is  better  to  use  two 
or  more  saucers.  Deeper  vessels  will  not  do,  as  the  evaporation  is  not 
sufficiently  rapid.  After  pouring  the  bisulfid  into  the  saucer,  cover 
the  box  with  an  oiled  canvas  sheet  or  other  tight-fitting  cover,  and 
allow  to  stand  for  from  forty-five  to  ninety  minutes.  At  the  end 
of  this  time  there  should  be  a  little  of  the  bisulfid  left.  If  it  has  all 
evaporated  this  is  proof  that  insufficient  was  used.  No  flame  lights 
should  be  used,  as  the  liquid  burns  easily  and  the  fumes  form  an 
explosive  mixture  with  the  air.  Lately,  in  Switzerland,  a  cellar  was 
wrecked  and  a  man  killed  by  an  explosion  of  vapors  of  bisulfid  owing 
to  a  neglect  of  this  precaution.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  spill  any 
of  the  liquid  on  the  cuttings,  as  it  may  kill  them.  It  is  advisable  to 
cut  off  about  half  an  inch  of  the  lower  end  of  the  treated  cuttings 
before  planting,  as  the  vapor  injures  the  open  pith. 

Besides  disinfecting  the  cuttings  in  this  way,  all  the  packing  material 
in  which  they  come  should  be  burnt,  or,  if  valuable,  dipped  in  boiling 
water.  Practically,  it  is  impossible  to  disinfect  rooted  cuttings  by  this 
means  satisfactorily  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  killing  all  the 
Phylloxera  without  seriously  injuring  the  vine  roots. 

Disinfection  of  Roots. — For  the  disinfection  of  rooted  vines  dipping 
in  hot  water  is  recommended  by  the  best  European  authorities.  The 
roots  should  remain  in  water  at  125°F.  to  130°F.  for  ten  minutes. 
The  same  treatment  may  be  used  for  cuttings.  The  method  has  several 
inconveniences,  however.  Only  small  quantities  can  be  disinfected  at 
one  time,  and  it  requires  great  care  to  see  that,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
heating  is  sufficient  to  kill  the  insects,  and,  on  the  other,  not  sufficient  to 
injure  the  vines.  Experiments  with  this  method  by  the  University 
are  not  promising,  and  many  of  the  rooted  vines  were  killed. 

It  is  probable  that  disinfection  by  means  of  hydrocyanic  gas  as 
practiced  for  nursery  stock  would  be  effective,  but  data  is  lacking  on 
this  point. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN   CALIFORNIA.  121 

Delaying  the  Spread  of  Phylloxera. — When  the  Phylloxera  has 
entered  the  vineyard  it  can  not  be  found  until  it  has  increased  suffi- 
ciently to  kill  or  seriously  weaken  a  vine.  By  this  time  it  has  usually 
spread  to  at  least  several  neighboring  vines.  It  is  usually  hopeless  to 
attempt  to  eradicate  it  in  this  case  without  digging  up  and  destroying 
a  very  large  number  of  vines,  and  even  in  this  case  there  is  no  assurance 
that  other  infected  spots  do  not  exist.  Something,  and  in  some  cases, 
much,  however,  can  be  done  to  delay  its  spread,  and  the  main  part  of 
a  vineyard  may  often  be  preserved  for  many  years  by  proper  measures. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  when  infection  is  first  discovered  is  to 
dig  up  all  the  dead  and  weakened  vines  and  a  block  surrounding  them, 
including  at  least  three  rows  of  apparently  healthy  vines  on  all  sides. 

These  vines  should  be  all  burned  on  the  spot  or  piled  up  in  the  center 
of  the  infested  block,  sprayed  with  coal  oil,  and  left  for  several  months 
until  the  dry  summer  air  has  certainly  killed  all  the  insects  on  their 
roots.  A  more  effective  method  is  to  treat  the  infested  area  with 
enough  bisulfid  of  carbon  to  kill  both  the  vines  and  the  Phylloxera. 
This  is  done  by  making  holes  with  a  crowbar  12  inches  deep  every 
18  inches  over  the  whole  area.  Into  each  hole  is  poured  iy2  ounces 
of  bisulfid  and  the  hole  closed  immediately  with  the  foot.  This  treat- 
ment is  best  applied  in  April  or  May,  after  the  vines  have  started  and 
before  the  ground  becomes  too  dry.  If  any  vines  survive  this  treatment, 
a  new  dose  of  1  ounce  to  the  18  inches  should  be  applied  three  weeks 
later. 

However  carefully  either  of  these  methods  is  carried  out  it  affords 
only  temporary  relief.  In  Switzerland,  Algeria,  and  Germany,  where 
such  methods  have  been  applied  with  the  utmost  strictness  and  under 
military  supervision,  the  spread  of  the  pest  has  been  checked  but  not 
stopped. 

In  any  case,  plows  or  cultivators  should  not  pass  through  affected 
spots  in  the  healthy  parts  of  the  vineyard.  Cultivation  is  one  of  the 
most  effective  means  of  carrying  the  root  insects  from  one  part  of  the 
vineyard  to  another. 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  discourage  the  introduction  of 
cuttings,  and  especially  of  roots,  from  infested  to  uninfested  districts. 
Wherever  possible  it  is  best  to  obtain  planting  stock  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood. 

Reestablishment  of  the  Vineyard. — When  a  vineyard  becomes  thor- 
oughly infested,  that  is,  when  it  contains  several  scattered,  diseased 
spots,  or  when  10%  to  15%  of  the  vines  are  known  to  be  attacked,  it 
is  useless  to  attempt  to  delay  the  pest  by  these   means.     The   only 


122  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

course  to  be  followed  in  this  case  is  to  cultivate  each  block  as  long 
as  it  produces  paying  crops,  and  then  to  dig  it  up  and  replant  it  with 
bench  grafted  resistants.  It  is  very  bad  policy  to  commence  replanting 
single  vines  or  small  areas  each  year  as  they  fail.  A  young  resistant 
planted  among  old  viniferas  never  gets  the  proper  care,  and  has  no 
chance  to  do  its  best.  "Where  this  method  is  adopted,  the  vineyard 
finally  becomes  a  mixed  lot  of  vines  of  various  ages  and  of  various 
degrees  of  unprofitableness.  Replanting  should  be  done  in  regular, 
rectangular  blocks. 

Planting  New  Vineyards. — In  planting  a  vineyard  in  new  soil, 
whether  we  should  plant  grafted  resistants  or  viniferas  on  their  own 
roots  is  to  be  determined  by  local  conditions.  If  there  is  great  likelihood 
of  our  vines  being  attacked  before  they  have  borne  two  or  three  crops 
it  would  be  folly  to  plant  anything  but  resistants.  Hundreds  of  acres, 
in  the  aggregate,  which  have  been  planted  in  Phylloxera-infested 
districts  have  died  before  they  ever  produced  a  crop.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  there  is  a  fair  chance  of  the  vineyard  remaining  uninfested 
for  many  years  it  is  often  safe  to  plant  non-resistants,  and  thus  save 
the  $30.00  to  $40.00  per  acre  extra  which  a  resistant  vineyard  will  cost. 

In  the  counties  of  Marin,  Sonoma,  Napa,  Solano,  Contra  Costa, 
Alameda,  Santa  Clara,  Santa  Cruz,  and  San  Mateo,  where  the  Phylloxera 
is  very  generally  distributed,  it  is  throwing  work  away  to  plant  any- 
thing but  resistant  vines.  The  same  is  true  of  those  districts  in  the 
Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys  where  the  pest  has  obtained  a 
secure  foothold.  In  any  district  it  is  unsafe  to  plant  non-resistants 
anywhere  within  two  or  three  miles  of  an  infested  vineyard. 


RESISTANT  VINES. 

The  demand  for  information  regarding  Phylloxera-resistant  vines 
becomes  every  day  more  pressing.  The  problems  of  the  adaptation  of 
various  stocks  to  various  soils  and  climates,  of  the  suitability  of 
various  combinations  of  stock  and  scion,  and  of  the  best  methods  of 
grafting  have,  therefore,  been  given  as  much  attention  as  possible. 

Rupestris  St.  George. — Probably  nine  tenths  of  the  resistant  vines 
being  planted  in  California  at  the  present  time  are  Rupestris  St. 
George.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  most  excellent  stock  for  a  large  portion 
of  the  country.  It  is  giving  its  best  results  in  the  interior  valleys  and 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  coast  valleys  and  hillsides.  Numerous  cases 
of  partial  failure,  however,  have  been  noted,  which  make  it  certain 
that  for  manv  locations  a  better  stock  is  to  be  found. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  123 

Most  of  the  cases  of  failure  have  been  reported  from  Sonoma,  Napa, 
and  Santa  Clara  counties.  They  can  nearly  all  be  traced  to  unsuitable 
soil  conditions.  Where  there  is  an  impermeable  subsoil  (bed  rock  or 
compact  clay)  the  St.  George  usually  fails.  Under  such  conditions,  if 
the  soil  is  dry,  the  vines  make  poor  growth;  if  wet,  the  roots  decay 
and  the  vines  die.  A  very  compact  clay  soil,  even  when  deep,  seems 
unsuited  to  this  variety,  at  least  when  grafted  with  certain  varieties, 
such  as  Emperor  and  Cornichon. 

In  some  cases  the  vines  grow  well,  but  the  crops  are  unsatisfactory. 
This  has  been  noted  only  in  rich  valley  soil  of  the  coast  counties  and 
only  with  certain  varieties.  A  similar  condition  has  often  been  noted 
in  Europe,  but  it  is  usually  easily  overcome  by  longer  pruning  and 
diminishes  with  age. 

A  more  serious  defect  has  been  found  in  some  of  the  cooler  districts. 
Many  varieties  when  grafted  on  St.  George  ripen  from  one  to  two 
weeks  later  than  when  grafted  on  Riparia  and  some  other  stocks.  This 
is  due,  probably,  to  the  great  vigor  of  the  stock,  which  keeps  the  vine 
growing  late.  It  is  a  serious  defect  wherever  there  is  difficulty  in 
obtaining  the  desired  amount  of  sugar  in  the  grapes  and  wherever 
late  grapes  are  liable  to  injury  from  the  autumn  rains. 

It  seems  inadvisable,  therefore,  to  plant  St.  George  in  cool  situations, 
on  northerly  slopes  of  the  coast  ranges,  in  localities  close  to  the  coast, 
or  on  shallow,  wet,  very  rich  or  stiff  clay  soils  in  any  locality,  and  to 
use  it  only  on  deep,  permeable  soils  in  the  warmer  districts  and 
locations. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH   VARIOUS   STOCKS. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  J.  K.  Moffit  we  have  been  able  to  take 
some  very  interesting  notes  on  resistant  vines  at  an  experiment  plot  in 
his  vineyard  at  St.  Helena,  Napa  County. 

This  plot  was  planted  in  1900,  under  the  direction  of  the  Experiment 
Station,  with  the  resistant  stocks  and  bench  grafts  which  served  for 
the  experiments  detailed  in  Bulletin  127.  Since  that  time  it  has  been 
looked  after  by  Mr.  B.  Bruck,  the  manager  of  the  vineyard.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  summary  of  the  notes  taken  in  1905. 

Three  rows  of  25  vines  each  were  planted  with  various  varieties  of 
bench  grafts;  in  one  row  the  stock  being  Rupestris  St.  George,  in 
another  Riparia  Gloire,  and  in  the  third  Riparia  Grande  Glabre.  In 
most  cases  there  were  two  vines  of  each  variety  on  the  same  stock,  in 
some  cases  three,  and  in  some  only  one.  The  results  are,  therefore,  not 
quite  so  convincing  as  if  they  had  been  made  on  a  larger  scale : 


124 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


Bench  Grafted  Vines.     Planted  in  1900. 

Notes  taken  in  1905. 


Sciox. 

Stock. 

Growth  in 
May. 

Crop. 

Remarks. 

Kleinberger 

Rip.  gloire 

Heavy 

Poor 

Much  broken  by  wind. 

Kleinberger 

St.  George 

Heavy 

None 

Nearly  all  canes  blown  off. 

Sultana          _  _  . 

Rip.  gloire 

St.  George 

Rip.  gloire 

Strong 

Strong 

Fair 

Good 

Berries  very  large. 

Berries  smaller  than  on  Rip. 

Sultana 

Fair 

Blue  Portuguese- 

Good. 

Burger 

Rip.  gloire 

Very  large 
Good. 

23  pounds  to  one  vine. 

Pinot  Chardon'y 

Rip.  gloire 

Fair 

Pinot  Chardon'y 

St.  George 

Very  strong- 

Fair. 

Semillon 

Rip.  gloire 

Strong 

Large. 

Palomino 

St.  George 

Very  strong- 

Large. 

Valdepenas_-  ___ 

Rip.  gloire 

Very  strong- 

Very  large 

22  pounds  to  one  vine. 

Valdepefias 

St.  George 

Very  strong- 

Poor. 

Gros  Mansenc  ___ 

Rip.  gloire Fair 

Heavy. 

Gros  Mansenc  ___ 

Rip.  gr.  glabre    Strong 

Fair. 

Folle  blanche  ___ 

Rip.  gloire 

Strong  

Very  large 

25.5  pounds  to  one  vine. 

Fresa 

Rip.  gloire 

Rip.  gr.glabre 
Rip.  gloire 

Fair  _ 

Fair. 

Fresa .  _ 

Strong 

Strong 

Fair. 

Marsanne 

Fair. 

Marsanne 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 

Strong 

Large. 

Marsanne 

St.  George 

Fair 

Fair. 

Vernaccia 

Rip.  gloire 

Strong 

Large. 

Vernaccia 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 

Very  strong- 

Fair. 

Vernaccia 

St.  George 

Strong 

Fair. 

Cornichon 

Rip.  gr.'  glabre 

Fair 

Fair. 

Cornichon 

St.  George 

Verv  strong- 

Good. 

Aramon 

Rip.  gr.glabre 
Rip.  gr.  glabre 
Rip.  gr.glabre 

Strong 

Weak 

Good  _ 

22.5  pounds  to  one  vine. 

Mataro 

Good. 

Mourisco  preto ,- 

Very  strong- 

Fair. 

Huasco ___ 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 

Fair  

Fair 

Much  coulure. 

Sultanina 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 

Very  strong- 

Poor. 

Verdot 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 
St.  George  __ 

Very  strong- 
Very  strong- 
Very  strong- 
Very  strong- 
Very  strong- 

Good. 

Barbera  _  , 

Large. 

Beba    

St.  George 

St.  George 

St.  George 

Good-     _ 

Berries  very  small. 
Berries  very  small. 
Much  coulure. 

Mantuo 

Fair 

Franken  Riesl.._ 

Small 

Alicante  Bous.  __ 

St.  George 

Very  strong- 

Very  large. 

Perruno 

St.  George 

Very  strong- 

Large. 

In  a  general  way,  all  the  varieties  on  all  stocks  looked  sufficiently 
vigorous,  with  the  exception  of  the  Mataro  on  Riparia  Grande  Glabre. 
The  vines  on  St.  George  were  nearly  always  more  vigorous  than  those 
on  Kiparia.  Of  the  two  Riparias  the  Grande  Glabre  seemed  a  little 
the  more  vigorous.  The  relative  standing  of  the  three  stocks  with 
regard  to  vigor  is  indicated  in  the  following  summary: 


Comparison  of  Vigor  of  Vine  on  Various  Stocks. 

Vigor. 

Number  of  Varieties 

on— 

Riparia 
Gloire. 

Riparia 
Grande  Glabre. 

St.  George. 

Verv  strong                            -    - 

2 
5 
4 

0 

5 
H 
2 
1 

11 

Strong                                       --  -     

2 

Fa i  r                                                            .____.__. 

1 

Weak                                    

0 

Bulletin  197 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


125 


The  only  variety  which  looked  very  weak  was  the  Mataro  on  Rip. 
Grande  Glabre.  This  corresponds  with  European  experience  where  it  is 
recommended  to  graft  this  variety  only  on  vinif era  X  American  hybrids, 
such  as  Aramon  X  Rupestris  No.  1  and  Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  1202. 
Where  the  growth  is  marked  ''fair"  the  slight  lack  of  vigor  could 
generally  be  ascribed  in  part  to  the  heavy  crop.  Exceptions  to  this 
are  the  Cornichon  and  Huasco  (Muscat  of  Alexandria),  which  not 
only  lacked  vigor  but  also  crop  on  Riparia. 

The  bearing  on  the  various  stocks  may  be  compared  in  the  same 
way  in  the  following  summary: 


Comparison  of  Crops  on  Various  Stocks. 

Crop. 

Number  of  Varieties  on— 
• 

Riparia 
Gloire. 

Riparia 
Grande  Glabre. 

St.  George. 

Verv  large 

4 
2 
3 

2 
1 

0 
1 
3 
6 
1 

1 

Large - 

3 

Good 

2 

Fair     _. 

5 

Small  . 

3 

This  is  hardly  a  fair  comparison,  for  the  reason  that  in  most  cases 
the  same  variety  was  not  grafted  on  all  three  stocks.  In  all  cases, 
however,  where  the  same  variety  was  grafted  on  both  Riparia  and 
Rupestris  St.  George,  with  the  exception  of  the  Cornichon  and  Fresa, 
the  vines  on  Riparia  had  larger  crops.  This  is  shown  by  the  following 
comparison : 


Comparison  of  Crops  on  Riparia  and  Rupestris. 


Variety. 


Crop  of  Vines  on- 


Riparia. 


Rupestris 
St.  George. 


Kleinberger__ 

Sultana 

Chard  onay_  _. 
Valdepenas  __. 
Gros  Mansenc 

Fresa 

Marsanne__^- 
Vernaccia_... 
Cornichon 


Poor 

Good.. __■_-.. 

Good ■__ 

Very  large  __ 

Heavy 

Fair 

Fair  to  large 
Fair  to  large 
Fair 


None. 

Fair. 

Fair. 

Poor. 

Fair. 

Fair. 

Fair. 

Fair. 

Good. 


It  should  be  noted  that  all  varieties  indiscriminately  were  pruned 
short.  If  those  which  need  long  pruning  when  ungrafted  had  been 
pruned  long,  the  showing  would  undoubtedly  have  been  more  favorable 
to  the  St.  George.  It  is  a  very  valuable  characteristic  of  the  Riparia, 
however,  that  it  enables  us  to  obtain  good  crops  with  short  pruning 


126 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


from  varieties  which  on  their  own  roots  require  long  pruning.  This  is 
exemplified  in  table  on  page  124  by  the  fact  that  of  eleven  varieties  which 
ordinarily  require  long  pruning  eight  varieties  bore  good  crops  with 
short  pruning  when  grafted  on  Riparia ;  of  seven  long-pruning  varieties 
grafted  on  St.  George,  only  one  bore  good  crops  when  pruned  short. 
This  was  especially  noticeable  with  the  Valdepenas  and  Gros  Mansenc, 
which  bore  very  fine  crops  on  Riparia  Gloire  and  very  little  on  St. 
George. 

The  only  long-pruning  variety  which  bore  well  on  St.  George  was 
the  Barbera.  Of  the  short  pruning  varieties  the  following  bore  well 
on  St.  George:  Palomino,  Alicante  Bouschet,  Perruno,  and  Cornichon. 

The  quality  of  the  grapes  was  in  nearly  all  cases,  where  a  comparison 
was  possible,  better  on  Riparia  stock  than  on  St.  George.  The  grapes 
were  larger  and  sweeter.  The  higher  sugar  content  was,  moreover, 
usually  accompanied  by  higher  acidity,  showing  that  the  grapes  were 
better  developed.  The  following  table  includes  varieties  which  were 
bearing  on  both  Riparia  and  St.  George,  and  shows  very  clearly  the 
superiority  of  the  former  stock  in  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  must : 

Analysis  of  Grapes  from  Grafted  Vines. 

'  St.  Helena  Plot.    October  6,  1905. 


Scion. 


Stock. 


Sugar. 


Acid, 


Remarks. 


Valdepenas 

Valdepenas 

Zinfandel 

Zinfandel 

Araraon 

Mourisco  preto_-#- 
Blue  Portuguese  . 

Mataro 

Gros  Mansenc 

Gros  Mansenc 

Fresa 

Fresa 

Alicante  Bouschet 

Barbera 

Marsanne 

Marsanne 

Marsanne 

Chardonay  

Chardonay  

Semillon 

Huasco 

Palomino 

Palomino 

Kleinberger 

Perruno 

Franken  Riesling 

Sultana 

Sultana 

Mantuo 

Beba 

Cornichon 

Cornichon 


Rip.  gloire 

St.  George 

Rip.  gloire 

St.  George 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 
Rip.  gr.  glabre 

Rip.  gloire 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 
Rip.  gr.  glabre 

Rip.  gloire 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 

Rip.  gloire 

St.  George 

St.  George 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 

Rip.  gloire 

St.  George 

Rip.  gloire 

Kip.  gr.  glabre 

Rip.  gloire 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 

St.  George 

St.  George 

Rip.  gloire 
St,  George 

St.  George 

St.  George 

Rip.  gloire 

St.  George 

Rip.  gr.  glabre 
Rip.  gr.  glabre 
St.  George 


27.5 
23.5 
26.5 
24.0 
18.2 
23.0 
32.2 
19.0 
26.7 
24.1 
24.0 
26.6 
18.2 
26.1 
25.0 
23.3 
21.6 
25.0 
22.8 
26.5 
27.1 
26.5 
29.0 
22.6 
23.4 
26.5 
24.7 
24.0 
27.1 
20.3 
20.3 
18.4 


.65 
.56 
.92 
.85 
.96 
.66 
.53 
.75 
1.12 
1.20 
.83 
.92 
.86 
.87 
.67 
.50 
.62 
.60 
.87 
.68 
.64 
.55 
.45 
1.12 
.47 
.59 
.75 
.75 
.39 
.41 
.77 
.65 


Very  ripe,  a  few  grapes  shriveled. 
Crop  very  small. 

Many  dried  grapes. 
Grapes  small  for  Aramon. 

Much  overripe. 


Many  small  grapes. 
Grapes  very  small. 

Grapes  very  fine. 


Bulletin  197 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


127 


Comparison  of  Composition  of  Grapes  on  Riparia  and  St. 

George. 

Stock. 

Variety. 

Riparia  Gloire. 

Riparia  Grande 
Glabre. 

St.  George. 

Sugar. 
27.5 
26.5 
24.1 
25.6 
27.5 
23.3 
25.0 
24.0 

Acid. 
.65 
.92 

1.20 
.92 
.84 
.50 
.60 
.75 

Sugar. 

Acid. 

Sugar. 
23.5 
24.0 

Acid. 
.56 

Zinfandel 

.85 

26.7 
24.0 
27.6 
25.0 

22.8 

1.12 
.83 
.92 
.67 

.87 

Fresa 

Vernaccia 

24.2 
•     2L6 

.61 

Marsanne 

.62 

Chardonav 

Sultana 

24.7 
18.4 

.75 

Cornichon 

20.3 

.77 

.65 

Mean 

25.4 

.80 

24.4 

.86 

22.7 

.67 

These  observations  warn  ns  that  we  should  not  hastily  reject  the 
Riparia  as  a  stock.  While  there  have  been  many  failures  on  Riparia, 
these  failures  can  be  traced  to  lack  of  selection  of  the  proper  kind 
of  Riparia  and  to  the  planting  of  Riparia  on  unsuitable  soil.  If  we 
plant  ftiparia  Gloire  on  rich,  deep,  loose,  moist  but  well-drained  soil, 
especially  in  the  cooler  districts,  and  avoid  overbearing  by  too  long 
pruning,  we  will  probably  obtain  better  results  than  by  planting 
Rupestris  St.  George  under  the  same  conditions. 

Zinfandel. — A  very  interesting  part  of  the  plot  is  a  series  of  rows  of 
different  stocks  field-grafted  in  1900  with  Zinfandel.  Each  row  con- 
sisted of  about  20  vines.  A  summary  of  the  notes  taken  is  given  in 
the  following  table: 

Notes  on  Zinfandel  Grafted  on  Various  Stocks. 

Vines  5  years  from  grafting.    1905.    St.  Helena. 


Growth. 

Crop. 

Stock. 

May. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Remarks. 

Rupestris  Martin 

10114 

Vigorous, 
Vigorous. 

Vigorous- 

Good 

Vigorous- 
Uneven  __ 
Strong 

Good_ 

La  r  ere. 
Good_. 

Good.. 

Heavy 
Heavy 

Fair  ._ 

Good__ 

Large  _ 

Good. 

Good. 

Fair. 

Fair  __ 
Good- 

Strong. 

Looked    a    little    weak    in 

Rupestris  St.  George  ._ 

3309 

10114    . 

August,  but  recovered. 
Sugar  24.0,   acid   .85,   manv 

Fair  _- 
Fair  __ 

Weak. 

Strong 
Strong 

Fair  „ 
Fair  __ 
Fair    . 

dried  grapes. 

More  vigorous  than  3309,  less 

than  St.  George. 
Vines  all  weakly. 
Sugar  26.5,  acid  .92. 
Growth  uneven. 

Viala 

Riparia  Gloire 

Solonis 

Weak____ 

Fair 

Strong 

Fair 

Rupestris  Mission 

Munson 

Fair  __ 

Fair  ._ 
Good.. 
Fair  ._ 

Riparia  Grande  G  la  bre 

It  is  encouraging  to  find  that  our  principal  wine  grape  has  given 
good  results  on  all  the  principal  stocks.  The  vigor  and  bearing  of 
the  vines  on  Riparia  X  Rupestris  3309  and  10114  were  particularly  fine. 


128  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

Mondeuse. — One  of  the  rows  of  this  variety  is  grafted  on  Riparia 
Grande  Glabre  and  is  very  vigorous  and  bearing  good  crops.  About 
600  vines  of  the  same  variety  are  grafted  on  St.  George  and  are  even 
more  vigorous,  but  the  crop  is  uneven.  Owing  to  the  vigor  of  the 
growth  many  canes  were  broken  by  the  wind  in  the  spring,  which 
probably  accounts  for  the  variations  in  bearing.  All  the  vines  show 
a  considerable  amount  of  coulure. 

Semillon  grafted  on  St.  George  made  good  growth,  but  the  crop 
was  unsatisfactory  and  much  coulured. 

Ferrara  on  St.  George  (about  75  vines)  showed  excellent  growth, 
but  only  a  medium  crop  and  much  coulure. 

Tokay  on  St.  George  (50  vines)  was  excellent.  The  vines  were  ex- 
tremely vigorous  and  the  crop  good.  The  bunches  were  not  compact, 
but  were  well  filled.  The  tendency  of  the  stock  to  produce  coulure  in 
this  case  had  resulted  simply  in  a  thinning  of  the  berries,  which  was 
an  advantage. 

St.  Macaire  on  St.  George  has  done  very  well,  being  vigorous,  and 
producing  good  crops  with  short  pruning. 

Bench  Grafts  and  Field  Grafts. — In  starting  this  experiment  plot 
some  of  the  rows  were  planted  with  bench  grafts  and  the  others  with 
rooted  resistants,  which  were  field-grafted  the  following  year.  This 
gives  us  a  good  comparison  of  the  two  methods  as  regards  the  securing 
of  a  good  stand. 

Comparison  of  Bench  Grafting  and  Field  Grafting. 

c,-™^                                                                  No.  Growing  No.  Failed  by 

tol0CKS-                                                                    5th  Year.  5th  Year. 
Field  Grafting  (Zinfandel)— 

Rupestris  St.  George 39  =  68%  18  =  32% 

Riparia  X  Rupestris  3309 36  =  72%  13  =  28% 

Riparia  X  Rupestris  10114 '___  42  =  84%  8  =  16% 

Rupestris  Martin 1 26  =  55%  21  =  45% 

Vialla 16  =  70%  7  =  30% 

Total 159  =  70%  67  =  30% 

Rfnph  riBAKTrw-  No.  Growing  No.  Failed  by 

BENCH   DRAFTING—  6th  Year  6th  Year 

Mondeuse  on  St.  George 600=98%  14=    3% 

Tokay  on  St.  George 48  =  96%  2=4% 

Ferrara  on  St.  George 70  =  93%  5=7% 

Total 718  =  97%  21=    3% 

As  all  these  vines  were  growing  close  together  on  the  same  kind  of 
soil,  and  under  the  same  management,  the  comparison  speaks  eloquently 
in  favor  of  bench  grafts  as  a  means  of  obtaining  a  perfect  "stand." 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE.  CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  129 

EXPERIENCE  OF  GROWERS.      WINE  GRAPES. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  collect  the  experience  with  various 
resistant  vines  of  growers  in  various  sections.  The  experience  of  the 
older  vineyards  is  of  little  use,  and,  in  fact,  apt  to  be  misleading,  as 
they  were  nearly  all  grafted  on  unselected  Riparia  and  Rupestris.  The 
stocks  in  the  newer  resistant  vineyards  are  nearly  all  Rupestris  St. 
George  and  Lenoir,  so  that  the  data  for  comparison  are  meagre.  Some 
of  the  reports  received,  however,  are  interesting  and  are  given  here. 

NAPA   COUNTY. 

B.  Bruck,  St.  Helena. 

Vigor.  Crop. 

Zinfandel  on  St.  George,  7  years  old,  red,  clay,  hill  soil  _._Good  Fair 

Zinfandel  on  Lenoir,  8  years  old,  red,  clay,  hill  soil Good  Fair 

Burger  on  St.  George,  9  years  old,  rich,  dry  soil Good  Large 

Palomino  on  Lenoir,  9  years  old,  rich  loam Good  Good 

Carignane  on  Lenoir,  8  years  old,  rich  loam Fine  Fine 

Sauvignon  vert  on  Riparia,  14  years  old,  rich  loam Fine  Fine 

Sauvignon  vert  on  St.  George,  5  years  old,  rich  loam Fine  Fair 

Johannisberger  on  Riparia,  10-14  years  old,  loamy  soil Fine  Fair 

Johannisberger  on  St.  George,  6  years  old Strong  Poor 

Tokay  on  St.  George,  7  years  old,  heavy  soil Good  Fair 

Tokay  on  Lenoir,  8  years  old,  gravelly  soil Fair  Fair 

Muscat  on  Lenoir,  8  years  old,  dry,  gravelly  ___-•- Weak  Good 

The  vineyard  to  which  these  notes  refer  is  the  same  as  that  in  which 
the  experiment  plot,  reported  on  above,  is  situated.  The  results  cor- 
roborate these  of  the  plot.  The  crops  of  varieties  grafted  on  St.  George 
vary  from  poor  to  fair,  with  the  exception  of  the  Burger,  whose  natural 
tendency  to  heavy  bearing  has  here  been  retained  when  grafted  on 
St.  George. 

J.  H.  Wheeler,  St.  Helena. 

Zinfandel  on  St.  George,  1-8  years  old Vigorous  and  satisfactory. 

Zinfandel  on  Lenoir,  1-18  years  old Vigorous  and  satisfactory. 

Zinfandel  on  Riparia Poor,  gradually  dying. 

Burger  on  Lenoir,  1-12  years  old Very  vigorous,  good  crops. 

Muscat  on  Lenoir,  10  years  old Fair. 

Mr.  Wheeler  states  that  all  varieties  grafted  on  Lenoir  yield  about 
one  half  the  crop  which  they  formerly  did  when  growing  on  their  own 
roots,  but  that  the  crops  are  regular.  The  same  varieties  grafted  on 
St.  George  yield  from  one  half  to  two  thirds  the  crops  formerly  obtained 
before  the  advent  of  Phylloxera.  This  report  is  sufficient  to  condemn 
both  stocks  for  this  vineyard,  as  the  experience  in  Europe  is  that 
whenever  a  stock  suitable  to  the  variety  of  scion  and  the  nature  of 
climate  and  soil  is  used,  the  crop  of  grafted  vines  is  always  larger  than 
that  of  vines  on  their  own  roots.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
Riparia  X  Rupestris  hybrids  would  give  better  results  in  this  vineyard. 
2— Bul.  197 


130  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

Mr.  Wheeler  states  further  that  Lenoir  gives  late  ripening  and 
low  sugar  with  all  varieties,  that  the  same  varieties  on  St.  George 
ripen  about  two  weeks  earlier  and  attain  from  1%  to  3%  more  sugar. 
These  varieties  on  Kiparia  ripen  still  earlier  (1  to  2  weeks)  and  attain 
1%  to  2%  more  sugar  than  on  St.  George.  This  corroborates  the 
experience  on  the  St.  Helena  plot. 

Crabb's  Black  Burgundy  (Refosco)  and  Petite  Sirah  are  said  to 
fail  occasionally  on  St.  George,  but  a  second  graft  on  the  same  stock 
usually  takes.  This  simply  indicates  a  slight  difficulty  in  grafting, 
and  not  necessarily  any  lack  of  affinity. 

Fred  8.  Ewer,  Rutherford. 

Mr.  Ewer  finds  the  Lenoir  a  very  satisfactory  stock,  as  is  shown 
by  the  following  extract  from  a  letter  which  he  kindly  wrote: 

I  would  like  to  say,  on  the  start,  that  my  knowledge  of  the  different  resistant 
stocks  (except  Lenoir)  is  so  limited  that  I  shall  not  attempt  to  say  much  about  any 
other  than  the  Lenoir. 

I  have  tried  only  three  different  resistants  in  all,  Riparia,  Rupestris  St.  George, 
and  Lenoir,  and  all  grafting  on  same  was  field  work,  as  I  have  never  been  a  believer 
in  bench  work  for  our  place,  believing  we  could  get  a  vineyard  quicker  with  the  field 
grafting,  and  the  little  bench  grafting  I  have  done  has  proved  it  to  my  entire 
satisfaction. 

The  Riparia  was  a  total  failure  with  us  at  Rutherford,  and  a  partial  success  at 
our  small  vineyard  at  St.  Helena.  We  planted  3,000  Rupestris  in  vineyard,  and 
grafted  them  at  one  year  old,  and  only  got  a  stand  of  30%,  where  with  the  Lenoir 
we  nearly  always  got  from  90%  to  95%  of  a  stand,  so  you  can  easily  see  why  I 
favor  the  Lenoir. 

Under  certain  conditions,  such  as  soil,  climate,  moisture,  etc.,  I  am  inclined  to 
think,  from  the  experience  of  others,  that  the  Rupestris  is  better  than  the  Lenoir, 
but  not  for  our  place. 

My  preference  for  the  Lenoir,  summed  up  briefly,  is  as  follows,  viz. :  Vigorous 
growers,  ease  of  taking  the  graft,  fine  union,  and  few,  if  any,  suckers,  if  properly 
prepared  before  planting. 

I  will  say  that  as  regards  the  bearing  of  the  different  varieties  on  resistant  stock. 
I  believe  we  get  a  better  crop  and  more  sugar  now  than  we  used  to  on  the  vinifera  ; 
that  is  to  say,  on  all  varieties  we  have,  such  as  Chas.  Font,  Golden  Chasselas, 
Semillon,  Sauvignon  vert,  Traminer,  Burger  of  the  white  varieties,  and  Crabb's 
Black  Burgundy,  Alicante  Bouschet,  Petite  Sirah,  Beclan,  and  a  few  Zinfandel 
of  the  reds. 

I  have  Petite  Sirah  grafted  on  Lenoir  fourteen  years  old,  and  growing  strong  and 
vigorous,  and  bearing  good  crops  every  year.  I  wish  you  could  see  the  crop  of 
grapes  on  them  now ;  it  looks  like  eight  tons  to  the  acre. 

I  believe  I  am  the  only  person  in  this  county  who  has  grafted  any  Muscat  on 
Lenoir,  and  my  foreman  said  the  other  day  there  were  more  grapes  on  the  vines 
than  leaves,  showing  that  the  Muscat  will  do  well  on  Lenoir;  they  are  now  eight 
years  old  and  doing  well. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  soil  of  Mr.  Ewer's  vineyard  is  very 
deep,  rich,  and  liable  to  become  very  wet  in  the  winter.  These  con- 
ditions are  very  favorable  to  the  growth  of  new  roots,  and,  to 
some  extent,  unfavorable  to  the  Phylloxera.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  some  Zinfandel  vines,  on  their  own  roots,  are  still  bearing  good 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  131 

crops,  though  they  have  been  infested  with  Phylloxera  for  ten  years  or 
more.  Under  such  conditions,  the  low  resistance  of  the  Lenoir  is 
sufficient.  It  would  be  unsafe  to  conclude  from  this  that  Lenoir  would 
be  sufficiently  resistant  in  other  soils  and  under  other  conditions. 

The  failure  of  Riparia,  noted  both  by  Mr.  Ewer  and  by  Mr.  Wheeler, 
is  in  part  due  no  doubt  to  the  use  of  unselected  stock.  If  Riparia 
Gloire  had  been  used  it  is  probable  that  very  different  results  would 
have  been  obtained. 

G.  de  Latour,  Rutherford. 

Vigor.  Crop. 

Zinfandel  on  St.  George,  5  years  old,  gravelly  soil Not  good  3  tons 

Burger  on  St.  George,  5  years  old,  gravelly  soil Very  good  6  tons 

Alicante  Bouschet  on  St.  George,  5  years  old,  gravelly  soil-Good  4  tons 

Palomino  on  St.  George,  5  years  old,  gravelly  soil Very  good  2  tons 

Sauvignon  vert  on  St.  George,  5  years  old,  gravelly  soil Very  good  2  tons 

Green  Hungarian  on  St.  George,  5  years  old,  gravelly  soil- Very  good  5  tons 

Petite  Sirah  on  St.  George,  gravelly  soil Weak  Good 

Grand  Noir  on  St.  George,  3  years  old,  gravelly  soil Good  \\  tons 

Mr.  de  Latour  states  further  "*  #  *  it  seems  that  Zinfandel  does 
not  succeed  very  well  on  St.  George;  the  union  with  Petite  Sirah 
seems  defective  also.  The  Riparia  X  Rupestris  3309  seems  to  be  .still 
better  than  the  Rupestris  St.  George." 

SONOMA    COUNTY. 

L.  Justi,  Glen  Ellen. 

Reports  that  all  the  varieties  of  Avine  grapes  in  his  district  have 
grown  vigorously  and  borne  good  crops  on  Lenoir,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Petite  Sirah,  which  sometimes  fails.  Alicante  Bouschet  and 
Burger  do  particularly  well. 

K.  Nagasawa,  Santa  Rosa. 

Zinfandel  on  St.  George,  5  years  old,  on  light  ash.y  soil,  becoming- 
very  hard  in  summer,  are  very  vigorous  and  yield  very  well.  Alicante 
Bouschet,  Beclan  and  Muscadelle  du  Bordelais  on  the  same  stock  are 
doing  well,  though  too  young  to  bear  yet. 

SAN   JOAQUIN    COUNTY. 

F.  and  F.  A.  Arnold,  Stockton. 

Nature  of  soil:  24  acres — 3  parts  adobe  and  1  part  river  sand  and 
slickens ;  3  to  6  feet  deep  ;  no  overflow  for  years ;  no  irrigation.  Plowed 
12  inches  deep  before  planting  cuttings;  field  grafting.  Burger  and 
Mission  doing  well  on  Rupestris  St.  George,  Riparia  Gloire,  Riparia 
Grande  Glabre,  and  Riparia  X  Rupestris  hybrids. 


132  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

SANTA   CLARA    COUNTY. 

Paul  Masson,  San  Jose. 

Zinfandel  on  Rupestris  St.  George,  6  years  old,  satisfactory,  good 
unions,  healthy  looking,  but  do  not  bear  abundantly. 

Burger  on  Rupestris  St.  George,  4  to  7  years  old,  field  grafted;  bad. 
Poor  success  from  beginning,  many  dying  every  year,  apparently 
from  poor  unions  and  lack  of  affinity.  Same  results  on  sandy,  deep, 
rich  gravelly  and  rich  loamy  soils. 

Carignane  and  Pinot,  11  years  old,  planted  on  special  soil,  are 
doing  well. 

"I  have  quite  a  few  acres  of  11-year-old  vines  grafted  on  Rupestris 
St.  George,  including  the  following  varieties :  Carignane  Mondeuse, 
Alicante  Bouschet,  Aramon,  Grand  Noir,  Durif,  Grenache,  Pinot, 
Semillon,  Sauvignon  vert,  Folle  blanche,  Colombar,  Pinot  blanc.  These 
are  all  doing  very  well,  and,  if  anything,  more  vigorous  and  prolific 
than  ungrafted  vines  of  the  same  age.  Carignane  and  Grenache,  12 
years  old  on  St.  George,  have  never  failed  to  give  a  large  crop,  and 
Aramon  also  seems  very  prolific. ' ' 

Mataro  (grafted)  is  not  very  satisfactory;  it  bears  heavily,  but 
many  die  during  the  hot  summer. 

Thos.  Casalegno,  Evergreen. 

Zinfandel  on   St.   George,   vigorous;   coulures. 

Mondeuse  on  Riparia,  fair  vigor  and  crop. 

St.  Macaire  on  Riparia,  9  years  old,  rocky  soil,  light  growth,  fair  crop. 

Carignane  on  Riparia,  10  years  old,  good  growth  and  crop. 

Carignane  on  St.  George,  10  years  old,,  clay  soil,  good  growth  and  crop. 

Carignane  on  St.  George,  10  years  old,  gravel  soil,  good  growth,  but 
coulures. 

Mataro  on  St.  George,  7  years  old,  coulures. 

Mataro  on  Riparia,  good  growth  and  crop. 

Alicante  Bouschet  on  St.  George,  5  years  old,  strong  growth,  coulures. 

Palomino  on  St.  George,  7  years  old,  clay  loam,  good  growth  and  crop. 

Chasselas  on  St.  George,  7  years  old,  clay  loam,  good  growth  and  crop. 

ALAMEDA   COUNTY. 

Grau  &  Werner,  Irvington. 

Tannat  on  Lenoir,  13  years  old,  healthy  growth,  but  very  light  crop. 

SANTA  CRUZ  COUNTY. 

E.  E.  Meyer,  Wrights. 

Valdepefias,  7  years  old,  and  Green  Hungarian,  6  years  old,  grafted 
on  St.  George,  are  growing  vigorously,  but  the  crops  are  not  altogether 
satisfactory. 


IiULLETIN    197 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


133 


Summary  of  Reports  from  Growers. 

Variety. 

Vigor. 

Crop. 

Zinfandel  on  St.  George 

Good  5 

Poor  1 
Poor  1 

Goodl 

Fair  4 

Zinfandel  on  Riparia 

Good  2 
GoodS 
Good  2 
Good  1 
Good  3 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Goodl 

Fair  2 
Fair   1 

Good  2 
Good  2 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  2 
Good  1 
Good  1 

Carignane  on  Lenoir 

Alicante  Bouschet  on  St.  George- 
Alicante  Bduschet  on  Lenoir 

Fair   1 

Petite  Sirah  on  St.  George 

Petite  Sirah  on  Lenoir 

Poor  1 
Poor  2 

Fair   1 

Mondeuse  on  Riparia 

hair  1 

Fair  1 

St.  Macaire  on  St.  George 

St.  Macaire  on  Riparia 

Valdepenas  on  St.  George 

Durif  on  St.  George 

Good  1 

"Goodl" 
Goodl 

Good  1 

Fair   1 

Fair  1 
Fair  1 

Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  2 
Good  2 
Good  2 
Good  2 

Mataro  on  St.  George 

Poor  1 

Fair   1 

Mataro  on  Riparia 

Good  1 
Good  2 
Good  2 
Good  2 
Good  2 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  3 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  2 

Burger  on  St.  George 

Poor  1 

Burger  on  Lenoir  _- 

Palomino  on  St.  George 

Poor  1 

Palomino  on  Lenoir 

Johannisberg  Riesl.  on  St.  George 
Johannisberg  Riesl.  on  Riparia  ._ 
Semillon  on  St.  George- 

Poor  1 

Fair  1 

Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  1 
Good  1 

Semillon  on  Lenoir 

Colombar  on  St.  George 

Fair  1 

Poor  1 

Colombar  on  Riparia 

Colombar  on  Lenoir 

Green  Hungarian  on  St.  George. _ 
Grenache  on  St.  George 

Fair  1 

Good  1 

STOCKS  FOR  THE  FRESNO  REGION. 

In  1903  five  plots  of  resistant  vines  were  planted  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Fresno  on  land  kindly  placed  at  our  disposal  for  that  purpose  by 
various  growers. 

The  great  importance  of  the  raisin  and  wine  industries  in  the  upper 
San  Joaquin  Valley,  and  the  special  climatic  and  soil  conditions  of 
that  region,  make  it  very  necessary  that  we  should,  as  soon  as  possible, 
obtain  some  reliable  information  regarding  stocks  that  will  succeed 
there.  European  experience  can  be  relied  on  less  in  this  region  than 
in  the  coast  valleys.  No  part  of  France  resembles  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley,  and  in  the  parts  of  Spain  which  show  the  most  nearly  similar 
conditions  the  problems  of  resistant  stocks  are  hardly  more  advanced 
than  in  California. 

The  five  plots  were  planted  primarily  to  determine  the  vigor  of  the 
most  promising  stocks  in  the  region,  and  to  provide  cuttings  for  dis- 
tribution to  enable  growers  to  make  tests  on  their  own  places. 

The  following  varieties,  which  include  nearly  all  those  which  have 
given  the  best  results  in  Europe,  were  planted : 

Pure  American   Varieties. 

1.  Riparia   Gloire  de   Montpellier. 

2.  Riparia  Grande  Glabre. 

3.  Rupestris   Martin. 

4.  Rupestris   St.   George. 

5.  Berlandieri  Ress§guier    No.  1. 


134  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

Americo- American   Varieties. 

6.  Riparia  X  Rupestris  3306. 

7.  Riparia  X  Rupestris  3309. 

8.  Riparia  X  Rupestris  10114. 

9.  Riparia  X  Berlandieri  33E. 

10.  Riparia  X  Berlandieri  34E. 

11.  Riparia  X  Berlandieri  15711. 

12.  Riparia  X  Berlandieri  420A. 

13.  Rupestris  X  Berlandieri  219A. 

14.  Rupestris  X  Berlandieri  301. 

15.  Solonis  X  Riparia  1615. 

16.  Solonis  X  Riparia  1616. 

17.  Riparia  X  Cordifolia-Rupestris  106s. 

18.  Solonis  X  Cordifolia-Rupestris  2024. 

Franco-American   Varieties. 

19.  Mataro  X  Rupestris  1202. 

20.  Aramon  X  Rupestris  No.  1. 

As  might  have  been  expected,  nearly  all  of  these  varieties  which 
started  grew  vigorously  in  the  rich  soil  of  the  region.  Cuttings  were 
used  in  making  the  plantations,  and  the  plots  show  strikingly  the 
differences  in  facility  of  rooting  of  the  different  stocks.  The  Berlandieri 
and  Berlandieri  crosses  rooted  badly.  The  best  of  the  latter  in  this 
respect  was  the  Riparia  X  Berlandieri  15711. 

The  four  most  vigorous  of  the  stocks  were  1616,  1202,  3306  and  St. 
George.  All  of  these  in  all  the  plots  grew  with  extraordinary  vigor 
and  rapidity. 

Seven  other  varieties  grew  with  scarcely  less  vigor.  These  were 
3309,  10114,  1615,  Riparia  Gloire,  15711,  Aramon  X  Rupestris  No.  1,  and 
1068.  Four  varieties,  33E,  34E,  2024,  and  Rupestris  Martin  grew  with 
fair  vigor,  but  were  distinctly  inferior  to  the  above. 

The  only  varieties  of  the  list  which  made  poor  growth  were  Riparia 
Grande  Glabre,  219A  and  301. 

Stocks  for  Muscat. — -The  importance  of  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria, 
as  the  basis  of  our  raisin  vineyards,  makes  it  highly  important  that 
a  suitable  stock  for  this  variety  should  be  found  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  invasion  of  the  raisin  vineyards  of  Spain  by  Phylloxera  is  com- 
paratively recent,  and  little  information  is  obtainable  regarding  the 
use  of  resistant  stock  there.  In  a  general  way  it  is  stated  that  the 
usual  resistant  stocks  are  being  used  in  the  principal  raisin-growing 
regions  of  the  Peninsula  with  success.  The  Muscat  of  Alexandria  is 
being  grown  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  table  grape  in  southern  France, 
and  is  said  to  succeed  on  any  vigorous  stock. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  South  Africa,  Muscat  vineyards  grafted  on 
Rupestris  St.  George,  Riparia  Gloire,  Aramon  X  Rupestris  No.  1,  and 
Rupestris  Metallica  have  almost  uniformly  failed.  After  bearing 
several   good   crops   the   vines   have   generally   died.     No   satisfactory 


BULLETIN  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  135 

explanation  of  this  difference  has  been  advanced.  The  most  plausible 
seems  to  be  that  the  vines  have  been  killed  by  overbearing.  The  vines, 
in  fact,  have  borne  large  crops  before  dying,  and  the  only  stock  on 
which  they  have  remained  healthy  is  Lenoir,  which  has  a  tendency  to 
induce  light  bearing  with  most  varieties. 

The  grafting  of  Muscats  on  resistant  stocks  has  been  little  practiced 
in  California,  but  a  few  growers  have  vines  which  have  been  bearing 
several  years  on  various  stocks. 

One  grower  reports  that  Muscats  on  Lenoir,  10  years  old,  have  given 
fair  results;  another  that  they  are  weak,  but  bear  well.  One  grower 
in  Tulare  County  has  dug  up  his  Muscat  vineyard  grafted  on  Lenoir 
because  so  many  of  the  vines  had  died.  Two  growers  report  that  they 
have  Muscats  grafted  on  St.  George  which  have  been  bearing  well  and 
growing  vigorously  for  from  3  to  6  years.  Another  grower  reports 
that  his  Muscats  grafted  on  St.  George  and  on  Kiparia  Gloire  have 
given  three  good  crops  and  are  equally  vigorous.  These  results  are  on 
the  whole  encouraging. 

While  the  question  of  the  selection  of  the  best  stock  is  not  so  pressing 
in  the  case  of  raisin  grapes  as  in  that  of  wine  grapes,  because  the 
greater  part  of  the  raisin  district  is  still  uninfested  by  Phylloxera,  it 
will  sooner  or  later  be  of  vital  importance  to  the  industry.  For  this 
reason  a  number  of  test  plots  have  been  started,  with  the  cooperation 
of  growers  in  various  sections  where  raisins  are  produced. 

In  1904  Muscat  cuttings  were  bench  grafted  on  the  following  re- 
sistant stocks : 

Rupestris  St.  George. 
Riparia  Gloire  de  Montpellier. 
Riparia  X  Rupestris  3309,  3306,  101". 
Solonis  X  Riparia  1616. 
Riparia  X  Berlandieri  33E,  34E,  157". 
Rupestris  X  Berlandieri  301A. 
Solonis  X  Cordifolia-Rupestris  2024. 
Aramon  X  Rupestris  No.  1. 
Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  1202. 
Lenoir. 

Several  hundred  rooted  bench  grafts  on  St.  George  and  1202  were 
obtained  and  distributed  to  a  number  of  growers  in  various  districts, 
principally  in  Fresno  County.  Smaller  quantities  on  the  other  stocks 
were  obtained  and  distributed  to  a  more  limited  number  of  growers. 

Notes  taken  on  the  quality  of  the  bench  grafts  before  they  were 
distributed  were  as  follows: 

Muscat  on  St.  George.     Heavy  growth,  complete  unions  but  large  swellings. 
Muscat  on  1014.     Good  growth,  complete  unions,  large  swellings. 
Muscat  on  3306.     Small  growth,  complete  unions,  small  swellings. 
Muscat  on  1202.     Heavy  growth,  complete  unions,  large  swellings. 
Muscat  on  Lenoir.     Good  growth,  complete  unions,  small  swellings. 


136  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

Reports  have  been  received  from  most  of  the  growers  who  received 
vines,  but  they  are  of  little  value  yet  as  showing  relative  vigor  of  the 
various  stocks.  One  of  the  most  complete  reports  is  given  below,  by 
Dr.  W.  N.  Sherman,  Fresno: 

Muscat  on  St.  George.     All  grew  vigorously. 

Muscat  on  Riparia  Gloire.     All  grew  vigorously. 

Muscat  on  1011*.     Four  out  of  six  lived  and  made  fair  growth. 

&*  ascat  on  3306.     Six  out  of  ten  lived  and  grew  vigorously. 

Muscat  on  3309.     All  lived  and  grew  vigorously. 

Muscat  on  i616.     Six  out  of  seven  lived  and  grew  vigorously. 

Muscat  on  33E.     All  lived,  but  made  poor  growth. 

Muscat  on  2024.  Four  out  of  six  lived  and  made  fair  growth. 

Muscat  on  1202.     All  lived  and  made  vigorous  growth. 

Muscat  on  Lenoir.     Nine  out  of  ten  lived  and  made  fair  growth. 

These  vines  were  planted  in  overwet  soil,  and  were  all  more  or  less 
injured  by  early  autumn  frost.  Too  much  emphasis  should  not,  there- 
fore, be  placed  on  the  fact  that  some  of  them  died. 

The  other  reports  show  in  general  that  the  Muscats  on  St.  George 
3306  and  Riparia  Gloire  on  the  whole  made  the  best  growth,  while 
10114  and  33E  generally  made  poor  growth.  The  other  stocks  gave 
intermediate  results.  The  results  the  first  year  are,  however,  apt  to  be 
misleading,  even  as  regards  vigor,  for  some  stocks,  for  example. 
Berlandieri  and  its  hybrids,  are  slow  starting,  but  make  a  vigorous 
growth  later.  The  question  of  crop  can  be  determined  of  course  only 
after  several  years  of  trial. 

GENERAL   RECOMMENDATION. 

Only  the  pressing  necessity  of  some  rules  to  guide  us  in  our  imme- 
diate plantations  will  excuse  the  making  of  recommendations  as  to 
stocks  in  the  present  incomplete  state  of  our  knowledge  of  the  behavior 
cf  the  various  stocks  in  the  diverse  conditions  of  our  grape-growing 
regions.  The  present  tendency  to  plant  St.  George  in  all  soils  and  in  all 
localities,  however,  is  undoubtedly  wrong,  and  has  led  to  disappoint- 
ment in  many  cases,  and  we  already  possess  sufficient  data  to  enable 
us  to  choose  something  better  for  many  locations. 

The  Rupestris  St.  George  has  given  its  best  results  in  the  hot,  dry 
interior  on  deep  soils.  It  seems  to  be  a  particularly  good  stock  for 
Tokay  and  Alicante  Bouschet  under  such  conditions.  Its  great  vigor 
seems  to  promise  a  diminution  of  the  tendency  of  the  Tokay  to  sunburn, 
and  -the  coulure  which  it  produces  with  many  varieties  only  extends 
to  the  production  of  loose  bunches  with  the  Tokay.  This  looseness  of 
bunch  is  a  distinct  advantage  with  this  variety.  The  coloring  and 
ripening  of  the  Tokay  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  when  grafted  on 
St.  George. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  137 

For  a  great  majority  of  our  soils  and  varieties  the  two  Riparia  X 
Rupestris  hybrids  3306  and  3309  promise  to  be  superior  in  every  way 
to  the  St.  George.  The  former  for  the  moister  soils  and  the  latter  for 
the  drier.  The  vigor  and  bearing  of  all  varieties  tested  on  these  two 
stocks  has  so  far  been  excellent,  and  they  should  in  most  cases  replace 
St.  George  in  all  but  the  hottest  and  driest  deep  soils. 

For  the  wettest  locations  in  which  vines  are  planted — in  places  where 
the  water  stands  for  many  weeks  during  the  winter,  or  where  the 
bottom  water  rises  too  near  the  surface  during  the  summer — the  most 
promising  stock  is  Solonis  X  Riparia  1616. 

For  moist,  rich,  deep,  well-drained  soils,  especially  in  the  coast 
counties  and  on  northerly  slopes,  the  St.  George  is  utterly  unsuited. 
The  crops  on  this  stock,  in  such  locations,  are  apt  to  be  small,  and 
the  sugar  contents  of  the  grapes  defective.  In  these  locations  the 
Riparia  Gloire  is  much  to  be  preferred,  and  will  undoubtedly  give 
larger  crops  of  better  ripened  grapes. 

None  of  the  above  stocks  give  good  results,  as  a  rule,  in  very  compact 
soils.  For  such  soils  the  most  promising  varieties  are  1068  in  the  drier, 
and  Aramon  X  Rupestris  No.  1  or  2024  in  the  wetter  locations.  In 
dry,  shallow  soils  420A  and  15711  give  promise  of  being  excellent  stocks. 

This  covers  most  of  the  soil  conditions  which  occur  in  California. 
The  only  other  cases  which  demand  consideration  are  the  varieties  with 
defective  affinity.  For  these  varieties  the  most  promising  stock  is  1202. 
This  stock  makes  excellent  unions  with  many  varieties  which  fail  on 
most  resistants,  and  is  to  be  tentatively  recommended  for  Emperor. 
Ferrara,  Cornichon,  Muscat,  Mataro,  Folle  blanche,  Pinot,  Gamay. 
Gutedel  and  any  varieties  which  have  not  given  generally  satisfactory 
results  on  Riparia  and  Rupestris. 

These  recommendations  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

For  average,  good  soils  in  most  locations — 

1.  Drier  soils    3309 

2.  Moister  soils 3306 

For  special  soils — 

3.  Dry,  deep,  in  hot  regions  and  locations St.  George 

4.  Dry,  deep,  in  cooler  regions  and  locations Rup.  Martin 

5.  Dry,  shallow   420A  or  15711 

6.  Dry  and  very  compact 1068 

7.  Wet  and  very  compact Aramon  x  Rup.  No.  1  or  202* 

8.  Wet,   loose    1616 

9.  Rich,  moist,  deep,  well  drained  in  the  cooler  localities.  .  .Rip.  Gloire 
For  varieties  of  defective  affinity  in  good  soils 1202 


138 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RESISTANT  STOCKS. 

In  order  to  enable  the  grower  to  determine  the  correctness  of  the 
labeling  of  his  resistant  vines,  the  following  brief  description,  adapted 
for  the  most  part  from  "Les  Vignes  Americaines"  of  Prof.  L.  Ravax 
and  accompanied  by  reproductions  of  original  photographs,  will  be 
of  assistance : 


Fig.  1.    Riparia  Gloire  de  Montpellier.    One  third  natural  size. 

Riparia  Gloire  de  Montpellier  (Fig.  1). — The  most  vigorous  of  all 
varieties  of  Riparia.  Leaves  very  large,  as  wide  as  long;  young  leaves 
and  tips  pale  green,  canes  and  trunk  thick.     Male  vine. 


Bulletin  197 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


139 


Roots  well  and  grafts  easily,  either  as  cuttings  or  in  the  field.  Trunk 
grows  almost  as  large  as  the  scion.  Vines  on  this  stock  bear  well,  and 
the  grapes  are  large,  sweet  and  early. 

Biparia  Grande  Glabre  (Fig.  2). — Very  vigorous,  but  does  not  grow 
so  stout  as  the  Riparia  Gloire.    Leaves  large,  longer  than  wide,  with  an 


Fig.  2.    Riparia  Grande  Glabre.    One  half  natural  size. 

almost   rectangular  outline,   due  to  the  short   terminal   lobe  and  the 
straight  sides.    Roots  thin,  hard  and  wiry.     Fertile  vine. 

Roots  well,  but  does  not  take  the  graft  so  well  as  Riparia  Gloire. 
Almost  equal  to  Riparia  Gloire,  but  subject  to  "folletage."  Folletage, 
or  sudden  dying  of  the  vine,  is  a  common  fault  of  the  unselected 
Riparias  formerly  grown  in  California,  and  for  this  and  other  reasons 


140 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


Fig.  3.    Rupestris  Martin.    One  half  natural  size. 


the  Riparia  Gloire  is  to  be 
preferred  to  the  present  or 
other  varieties  of  this  species. 

Rupestris  Martin  (Fig.  3). 
— Very  vigorous  and  one  of 
the  most  robust  of  the  exist- 
ing stocks.  Leaves  larger 
than  those  of  Rupestris  St. 
George,  and  with  a  V-shaped 
petiolar  sinus.  Canes 
glabrous,  pinkish,  long  and 
thick. 

Roots  easily,  but  is  more 
difficult  to  graft  than  St. 
George.  The  grafts  which  grow  are  very  satisfactory  and  are  less 
liable  to  coulure  than  grafts  on  St.  George.  It  succeeds  in  drier  situa- 
tions than  the  latter. 
Male  vine. 

Rupestris  St. 
George  (Fig.  4).— 
Perhaps  the  most 
vigorous  of  all  the 
stocks  grown  when 
planted  in  suitable 
locations.  Leaves 
small ;  the  petiolar 
sinus  very  open, 
with  a  j  -shaped  out- 
line. Canes  and 
trunk  very  thick 
and  robust. 

This  variety  roots 
and  grafts  with 
great  facility,  and 
grows  at  least  as 
large  as  any  scion 
which  is  grafted  on 
it.  Succeeds  in  any 
soil  except  those  un- 
derlaid with  an  im- 
permeable    or    stiff 

Play   SUDSOlI.  FlG  4     Rupestrig  st  George.    One  half  natural  size. 


Bulletin  197, 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


141 


Fig.  Ah.    Rupestris  Metallica  of  South  Africa. 


Rupestris    Metallica    (Fig. 

4%)- — The  best  varieties   of 

Riparia    and    Rupestris    give 

excellent    results    when    they 

grow  under  appropriate  soil 

and      climatic      conditions. 

Their    range    of    adaptation, 

however,      is      comparatively 

small — that  is,  they  are  likely 

to  give  unsatisfactory  results 

when     planted     in     locations 

which  differ  in  any  consider- 
able degree  from  those  which 

suit   them   best.     This   seems 

to  be  due  in  great  part  to  the 

direction  their  roots  naturally 

take.     Roots   of   Riparia   are 

for  the  most  part  spreading 

and  superficial,  and  succeed  only  where  sufficient  moisture  exists  near 

the  surface.     Roots  of  Rupestris  are,  on  the  contrary,  plunging  and 

deeply  penetrating,  and  fail  if  an  impenetrable  subsoil  prevents  their 

taking  their  natural  posi- 
tion. 

Experience  has  shown 
that  crosses  between 
Riparia  and  Rupestris 
have  a  much  wider  range 
of  adaptation  than  either 
of  their  parents,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  they  are 
capable  of  forming  a 
strong  root  system  in 
both  the  upper  and  lower 
layers  of  the  soil.  More- 
over, the  best  of  them 
retain  all  the  good  quali- 
ties of  both  parents — 
high  resistance  to  Phyl- 
loxera, ease  of  rooting 
and  grafting,  vigor  and 
fruitfulness  of  grafts. 
The  best  of  these  hybrids, 
according     to     European 


Fig. 


Riparia  x  Rupestris  3309.    One  half  natural  size. 


142 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


experience,  are  those  known  by  the  numbers  3309,  3306  and  10114.    The 
first  two  are  the  most  promising  in  California. 

Riparia  X  Rupestris  3309  (Fig.  5). — This  variety  resembles  in  habit 
a  Rupestris,  and  the  leaves  are  intermediate  between  those  of  the  two 
parentss 

It  has  small  leaves,  which,  on  the  laterals,  are  rounded  and  without 
lobes.  The  young  shoots  and  leaves  are  sparingly  pubescent,  but  the 
rest  of  the  vine  is  glabrous,  and  by  this  character  readily  distinguished 

from  3306.  The  vine  is 
male,  and  therefore  does 
not  produce  fruit. 

Riparia  X  Rupestris 
3306  (Fig.  6).  — The 
general  habit  of  this 
variety  resembles  also 
that  of  a  Rupestris, 
but  it  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  3309  by  its 
strongly  pubescent  leaves 
and  canes.    Male  vine. 

Riparia  X  Rupestris 
10114*  (Fig.  7).  — This 
variety  resembles  in 
habit  its  Riparia  parent 
more  than  3309  or  3306. 
Its  range  of  adaptation 
is  less  than  that  of  the 
latter,  and  it  is  most 
suited     to     fairly     rich 

soils,  such  as  those  suitable  to  Riparia.    It  bears  small  bunches  of  small, 

round,  black  grapes. 

Berlandieri  Resseguier  No.  1  (Fig.  8). — The  pure  Berlandieri  varie- 
ties have  all  the  qualities  required  in  a  stock — resistance  to  Phylloxera, 
ease  of  grafting,  permanency  of  union,  fertility  of  the  scion,  adaptation 
to  varied  soils — except  one,  that  of  ease  of  rooting.  From  100  cuttings 
only  10  to  15  rooted  vines  are  obtained  by  the  usual  methods  of  propa- 
gation. For  this  reason  this  species  has  never  been  used  to  any  great 
extent.  Certain  crosses  of  this  species  with  Riparia,  however,  while 
retaining  the  merits  of  the  Berlandieri,  possess  rooting  qualities  almost 
equal  to  Riparia.  They  are  particularly  promising  for  shallow,  stiff 
soils  where  the  Riparia  X  Rupestris  hybrids  might  suffer. 


m 


Fig.  6.    Riparia  x  Rupestris  3306.    One  half  natural  size. 


Bulletin  197. 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


143 


Biparia  X  Berlandieri  15711  (Fig.  9). — This  variety  was  obtained 
by  crossing  a  Berlandieri  with  pollen  from  Riparia  Gloire  de  Mont- 
pellier.  It  has  the  habit  and  leaves  of  a  Berlandieri,  and  a  root  system 
intermediate  between  those  of  its  parents.  It  is  thoroughly  resistant 
to  Phylloxera,  and  its  grafts  are  vigorous,  fruitful,  ripen  well,  and  are 
not  subject  to  coulure.  The  cuttings  root  fairly  well,  and  field  grafts 
succeed  very  well.     It  produces  an  abundance  of  strong  canes,  but 


Fig.  7.    Riparia  x  Rupestris  10114.    One  half  ^natural  size. 

these  do  not  ripen  well  in  the  cooler  localities.     It  produces  medium- 
sized  bunches  of  round,  black,  pulpy  grapes. 

Riparia  X  Berlandieri  420 A  (Fig.  10). — This  variety  is  perhaps 
superior  to  15711.  The  cuttings  root  more  easily,  graft  as  well,  and 
mature  more  regularly.  It  is  more  suited  to  bench  grafting  than  the 
former,  and  makes  vigorous  and  fruitful  grafted  vines.    Male  vine. 

The  Solonis  is  a  hybrid  of  unknown  parentage  which  resembles  in 


144  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

its  habits  a  Riparia.  It  was  at  one  time  much  used  as  a  stock,  but 
its  resistance  to  Phylloxera  is  insufficient.  In  California  vines  grafted 
on  Solonis  have  been  so  weakened  by  Phylloxera  as  to  be  useless.  Its 
only  use  is  for  wet,  sandy  soils,  where  it  gives  good  results. 

The  good  qualities  of  Solonis  are  found  in  certain  of  its  crosses  with 
Riparia,  of  which  the  most  promising  for  California  is  1616. 


Fig.  8.    Berlandieri  Resseguier  No.  1.    One  half  natural  size. 

Solonis  X  Riparia  1616  (Fig.  11). — This  variety  is  very  vigorous, 
and  the  cuttings  root  and  graft  well.  It  is  sufficiently  resistant  to 
Phylloxera,  and  is  to  be  recommended  for  sandy  and  especially  wet 
soils.    Vine  fertile,  producing  small,  round,  black  grapes. 

Riparia  X  Rupestris-C or di folia  1068  (Fig.  12). — This  variety  is 
vigorous  and  thoroughly  resistant  to  Phylloxera.  It  is  particularly 
recommended  for  stiff  clay  soils  which  become  hard  after  rain  and 
easily  dry  out.     It  is  in  just  such  soils  that  Rupestris  St.  George  and 


Bulletin  197. 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


145 


Riparia  have  often  failed   in   California,   and  this   variety   therefore 
promises  to  be  useful.    Vines  produce  small,  round,  black  grapes. 

Solonis  X  Cordifolia-Rupestris   202*    (Fig.    12%).— This   variety   is 
adapted  to  soils  similar  to  those  suited  to  1068,  but  resists  humidity 


Fig.  9.    Riparia  x  Berlandieri  15711.    One  half  natural  size. 

better.  Prosper  Gervais  in  his  report  to  the  Congres  International 
de  Viticulture  of  1900,  at  Paris,  says:  "The  varieties  2024  and  1068 
are  especially  suited  to  non-calcareous  clay  soils ;  the  latter  succeed 
in  dry.  poor,  hot  soils,  providing  they  are  not  too  shallow;  the  former 
in  soils  which  are  both  compact  and  wet." 

Aramon  X  Rupestris  No.  1  (Fig.  13).— This  variety  is  the  result  of 
a  cross  between  the  vinifera  variety  Aramon  and  Rupestris  Ganzin. 
3— Bul.  197 


146 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


Fig.  10.    Riparia  x  Berlandieri  420A. 
One  half  natural  size. 


(Mataro)  and  a 
Rupestris.  It  is, 
perhaps,  the  most 
widely  planted  of 
all  the  American 
vinifera  hybrids. 
Prosper  Gervais 
describes  it  as  "A 
stock  character- 
ized by  its  ex- 
treme vigor,  rapid 
development,  ease 
of  rooting  and 
grafting,  and  the 
fruitfulness  of  its 
grafts."  It  is  par- 
ticularly suited 
to  deep,  rich, 
humid,  clay  soils, 
and  makes  excel- 
lent unions  with 
all  varieties  of 
vinifera. 

The  vine  is 
fruitful,  bearing 
large  numbers  of 
small,  round, 
bluish-black 


The  leaves  resemble  Rupestris, 
and  unlike  most  crosses  contain- 
ing vinifera,  its  resistance  to 
Phylloxera  is  quite  sufficient  and 
superior  to  that  of  Lenoir.  It  is 
very  vigorous  and  roots  easily 
from  cuttings.  It  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  graft,  but  when  suc- 
cessful the  grafts  make  good 
unions  and  are  vigorous  and 
fruitful.  Its  chief  merit  is  that 
it  succeeds  in  wet,  compact  soils, 
where  most  other  varieties  fail. 

Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  1202 
(Pig.  14). — This  variety  is  a 
cross    between    the    Mourvedre 


Fig.  11.    Soloni.s  x  Riparia  1616.    One  half  natural  size. 


Bulletin  197. 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


147 


grapes.  It  is  grown  extensively  in  France,  Spain,  Sicily,  Portugal, 
and  Roumania,  and  has  given  good  results  wherever  tried.  In  Cali- 
fornia its  vigor  is  remarkable,  exceeding  even  that  of  Rupestris 
St.  George. 

OTHER  VINE  DISEASES. 

Oidium. — The  cause  and  treatment  of  this  disease  have  been  dis- 
cussed  in   Bulletin   186,    and   the   recommendations    in   it   have   been 


Fig.  12.    Riparia  x  Rupestris-Cordifolia  1068.    One  half  natural  size. 

followed  by  a  large  number  of  growers  this  year  in  all  parts  of  the 
State,  usually  with  success. 

All  of  the  reported  failures  which  have  been  investigated  have  been 
due  either  to  the  incomplete  carrying  out  of  the  recommendations,  or  to 
the  fact  that  the  vines  were  suffering  from  some  other  cause  which 
had  been  mistaken  for  Oidium. 


148 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


Fig.  12J-.    Solonis  x  Cordifolia-Riipestris202 

for  its  effect  on  the  settin 
Sulfuring  later,  if  needed, 
well  done.  This  is 
true  for  the  whole 
of  the  two  central 
valleys  and  for 
most  of  California, 
except  the  coast 
belt  subject  to  sum- 
mer ocean  fog. 

Definition  of  a 
Thorough  and 
Effective  First  Sul- 
furing.— The  first 
sulfuring  should  be 
made  when  the 
shoots  are  between 
6  and  15  inches 
long.  It  should  be 
done  in  such  a  way 
that  every  part  of 
every  leaf  of  every 
vine  in  all  parts  of 
the  vineyard  re- 
ceives some  sulfur, 
and  the  whole  vine- 


The  most  common  mistake 
of  those  who  have  attempted 
to  follow  the  directions  of  the 
bulletin  has  been  a  failure  to 
treat  the  vines  thoroughly  or 
rapidly  enough  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  season.  It  can 
not  be  too  strongly  urged  that 
the  most  effective  way  to  con- 
trol the  mildew  is  by  a  thor- 
ough and  effective  sulfuring 
in  the  beginning  of  the  season. 
This  alone  will  in  most  parts 
of  the  State  keep  the  vines 
free,  and  the  sulfuring  during 
the  blossoming  is  needed  only 
g  of  the  fruit,  and  as  an  extra  precaution, 
is  a  proof  that  the  first  two  have  not  been 


FlG.  13.     Arainon  x  Rupestris  No.  1.     One  half  natural  size. 


Bulletin  V.)~. 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


149 


yard  should  be  gone  over  in  as  short  a  time  as  possible.  This  will 
be  a  thorough,  sulfuring.  To  be  effective,  it  must  be  followed  imme- 
diately by  two  or  three  days  of  warm  weather.  Unless  this  happens, 
the  sulfuring  should  be  repeated  as  many  times  as  are  necessary  until 
the  proper  weather  conditions  are  obtained. 


Fig  14.    Mourvetlre  x  Rupestris  1202.    One  half  natural  size. 

Mysterious  Dying  of  Vines  ("Anaheim  Disease"). —The  vine,  like 
most  plants,  especially  fruit  trees,  which  are  cultivated  on  a  large  scale, 
is  subject  to  diseases  of  more  or  less  intensity  whose  cause  is  not 
thoroughly  understood.  These  diseases  are  (1)  caused  by  parasitic 
organisms  which  have  so  far  escaped  detection,  or  (2)  what  is  usually 
known  as  "physiological." 

Physiological  diseases  are  presumably  due  to  some  unfavorable  con- 
ditions.    For  example,  chlorosis,  or  the  failure  of  the  leaves  to  develop 


150  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

chlorophyll  properly,  is  due  to  an  excess  of  soluble  lime  carbonate  in 
the  soil,  and  is  intensified  by  cold,  dampness  and  the  susceptibility  of 
the  variety. 

The  most  serious  of  these  two  classes  of  diseases,  which  affects  the 
vines,  is  the  Anaheim,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  California  Vine 
Disease.  Notwithstanding  that  it  has  been  the  subject  of  continuous 
investigation  for  over  fifteen  years  its  cause  is  still  quite  obscure.  Even 
the  characterization  and  detection  of  the  disease  are  so  uncertain  that 
vineyards,  which  after  several  years  of  observation  by  the  most  ex- 
perienced investigators  have  been  pronounced  infected,  have  later  been 
declared  free.  This  has  led  to  such  a  diversity  of  opinion  that  while 
one  expert  claims  that  the  disease  exists  in  every  vineyard  in  the 
State,  another  would  have  us  believe  that  no  such  disease  exists  at  all, 
and  that  all  cases  of  dying  vines  can  be  ascribed  to  one  or  other  of  the 
recognized  vine  diseases. 

Neither  of  these  extreme  views  seem  to  explain  completely  the 
observed  facts.  While  many  cases  of  supposed  Anaheim  have  proved 
to  be  nothing  but  Phylloxera,  root-rot,  vine-hopper,  drought,  etc.,  there 
still  remain  a  large  number  of  unexplained  cases. 

In  some  cases  the  symptoms  are  practically  identical  with  those  of 
some  of  the  "physiological"  diseases  which  affect  vine  diseases  in 
Europe.  Typical  cases  of  Rougeot  have  been  noted  in  Contra  Costa 
County,  of  Brnnissure  in  San  Joaquin,  and  of  Folletage  in  Fresno, 
Kings,  and  other  counties.  In  Sonoma  County  the  disease  of  Bed-leaf, 
which  has  some  analogy  with  Anaheim,  has  been  studied  by  Mr.  0. 
Butler.  An  account  of  these  diseases  may  be  found  in  Bulletin  168, 
entitled  "Observations  on  Some  Vine  Diseases  in  Sonoma  County. " 

In  a  general  way,  as  these  troubles  are  due  to  soil  and  climatic  con- 
ditions which  weaken  the  vine,  they  are  to  be  combated  by  cultural 
methods  which  tend  to  invigorate.  Shorter  pruning,  thorough  culti- 
vation, irrigation  or  drainage,  and  fertilization  will  in  most  cases  be 
effective  in  curing  vines  which  are  not  too  far  gone. 

Many  cases  have  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  station  during 
the  last  two  years,  in  which  vines  which  were  apparently  healthy  the 
previous  year  have  failed  to  bud  out  in  the  spring,  or  budded  out 
weakly  and  very  late.  The  cause,  in  most  cases,  seemed  to  be  some 
injury  to  the  vines  during  the  growing  season  of  the  previous  year. 
This  cause  was  in  many  cases  the  attacks  of  vine-hoppers.  Black 
Prince  vines  growing  in  Tokay  vineyards  have  very  often  been  killed. 
This  seems  to  be  because  the  vine-hoppers,  having  a  special  fondness 
for  this  variety,  congregate  in  large  numbers  on  such  isolated  vines. 
Whenever  the  hoppers  are  sufficiently  abundant  to  cause  the  dropping 
of  the  leaves  in  summer,  the  vine  fails  to  ripen  its  wood  properly. 


BULLETIN   197.  GRAPE    CULTURE     IN    CALIFORNIA.  151 

Without  mature  green  leaves  the  buds  and  canes  do  not  receive  the 
stores  of  starch  which  they  need  for  the  new  growth  in  spring,  and 
will  either  grow  poorly  the  following  year  or  fail  to  start  at  all. 

When  a  new  growth  of  leaves  in  autumn  follows  summer  defoliation 


Fig.  15.     Brunissure  on  Tokay  leaves. 

by  hoppers,  mildew,  or  other  causes,  the  effect  is  even  worse.  The  new 
shoots  which  start  exhaust  what  food  reserves  the  vine  possesses, 
and  the  leaves  are  killed  by  the  early  winter  frosts  before  they  have 
been  able  to  return  the  supplies  they  have  taken  from  the  canes. 
Similar,  but  less  severe,  effects  have  been  observed  following  a  bad 
attack  of  Oidium. 


152 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


This  starvation  of  the  canes  and  buds  may  be  brought  about  in 
another  way,  namely,  by  the  production  of  too  large  a  crop.  It  is 
often  possible,  by  excessively  long  pruning,  to  cause  a  vine  to  produce 

an  abnormally  large  crop  of 
grapes.  The  larger  the  crop  the 
more  material  it  takes  from  the 
vine,  and  if  too  large,  the  vine  is 
unable  to  support  it  and  at  the 
same  time  lay  up  reserve  mate- 
rials in  its  canes  and  buds.  In 
consequence,  an  extra  large  crop 
is  often  followed  by  weak  growth 
in  the  spring,  and  a  consequent 
small  crop  the  following  autumn. 
Vines  of  heavy  bearing  varieties 
may  even  be  killed  in  this  way, 
by  repeated  long  pruning. 

This  fact  has  been  long  recog- 
nized by  practical  grape-growers. 
Lately,  Professor  L.  Ravaz.1  of 
the  National  School  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Montpellier,  France,  has 
advanced  the  opinion  that  the 
death  of  vines,  as  a  consequence 
of  overbearing,  is  much  com- 
moner than  is  usually  supposed. 
This  overbearing  may  occur  as  a 
consequence  of  various  condi- 
tions other  than  long  pruning. 
Some  seasons  are  peculiarly 
favorable  to  heavy  crops.  Cer- 
tain diseases  and  injuries  induce 
temporary  heavy  bearing.  What- 
ever the  cause  of  abnormally 
heavy  crops,  Professor  Ravaz 
believes  that  they  may  result  in 
the  death  of  vines.  This  is  the 
explanation  he  gives  of  the  death 
of  large  numbers  of  vines  in  southern  France,  Algeria,  and  other 
countries,  and  he  ascribes  our  so-called  Anaheim,  disease  to  the  same 
cause. 


Fig.  16.     Black  Knot  on  2-vear-old  Zinfandel. 


'  "Influence  de   la    Surproduction   sur  la    Vegetation  de  la   Visne,"   by   L.    Ravaz, 
Coulet  et  fils,  Montpellier,   1906. 


Bulletin  107 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


153 


This  is  substantially  the  explanation  given  of  the  dying  of  vines  in 
Santa  Clara,  in  Bulletin  134,  which  was  published  before  the  region 
was  declared  infested  by  Anaheim  disease.  Whether  this  explanation 
is  sufficient  is  still  doubtful,  though  it  is  rendered  probable  by  the 
fact  that  healthy  young  vineyards  are  now  growing  in  Santa  Clara, 
on  the  same  soil  where  vines  have  been  killed  by  ' '  Anaheim  disease. ' ' 


Fig.  17.    Black  Knot  on  arm  of  old  vine. 


Black  Knot. — This  is  one  of  the  commonest  and  most  widely  dis- 
tributed diseases  of  the  vine  in  California.  Many  speaimens  are  received 
by  the  Experiment  Station  every  year,  from  nearly  all  vine-growing 
sections.  It  consists  of  peculiar  growths,  or  swellings,  usually  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  roots  or  the  lower  part 
of  the  trunk.  It  often  occurs,  also,  on  all  parts  of  the  trunk  and 
branches,  but  only  rarely  on  the  canes. 

As  a  rule  it  does  little  damage  unless  it  occurs  on  young  vines, 
or  attacks  old  vines  very  severely.     Figure  16  is  the  photograph  of 


154 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


a  young  vine  very  badly  attacked,  showing  a  large  mass  of  knots  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  four  on  the  stem  above  the  surface.  Such 
a  vine  is  almost  girdled  and  could  never  develop  into  a  healthy  plant. 
Figure  17  shows  the  appearance  of  the  knot  on  a  branch  or  arm.     In 

this  case  the  knots  could  be 
removed  and  the  vine  might 
recover  perfectly. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
vines  with  large  masses  of 
knots  on  all  sides  of  the  trunk 
and  on  all  the  arms,  which 
yet  make  a  vigorous  growth 
and  produce  good  crops. 
When  the  knots  extend  all 
around  the  trunk  of  an  old 
vine,  however,  it  may  be 
girdled,  and,  while  it  seldom 
dies,  it  may  become  weak  and 
worthless. 

Various  theories  have  been 
advanced  as  to  the  cause  of 
this  disease,  but  the  most  com- 
monly accepted  is  that  it  is 
due  to  abrupt  changes  of  tem- 
perature, and  especially  to 
autumn  frost  occurring  before 
the  vine  has  become  thor- 
oughly dormant.  This  cause 
alone,  however,  does  not  seem 
to  be  sufficient  to  cause  the 
disease.  The  knots  appear 
only  on  vines  growing  in 
moist  places,  and  especially 
in  sandy  soil  in  the  hotter 
regions. 

Anything  which  causes  a 
vine  to  grow  vigorously  late 
in  the  season  and  prevents  the  proper  ripening  of  the  wood,  renders  it 
susceptible  to  the  disease. 

In  accordance  with  these  ideas,  the  remedies  advocated  aim  at  caus- 
ing the  vine  to  ripen  its  wood  early  and  completely.  These  remedies 
are  drainage  of  the  soil,  fertilization  with  phosphatic  manures,  longer 
pruning,  raising  the  trunk   of  the  vine,   and   removal   of  the  knots. 


Fig.  18.    Coulured  bunch  of  Muscat  of  Alexandria. 


Bulletin  197 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


155 


Swabbing  with  lime,  sulfate  of  iron,  and  other  antiseptics  has  proven 
useless. 

Couture  of  Muscats. — The  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  from  which  the 
bulk  of  our  raisins  is  made,  has  a  tendency  to  drop  its  blossoms  without 
setting.  This  trouble  is  usually  known  in  California  by  the  French 
term  of  "coulure,"  which  may  be  translated  ''dropping."  The  first 
crop  is  particularly  subject  to  this  defect,  which  is  often  so  serious 
that  a  large  part  and  sometimes  the  whole  of  the  first  crop  is  lost. 

The  trouble  has  been  investigated  during  the  last  twenty-five  years 
by  a  large  number  of  observers,  and  various  causes  assigned.  Among 
these  causes  may  be  mentioned  unfavorable  weather,  improper  prun- 
ing, fungous  attacks,  unsuitable  or  exhausted  soil.  These  causes  and 
others  may  intensify  the 
trouble,  but  the  primary  and 
essential  cause  has  lately 
been  demonstrated  by  P. 
Viala  and  P.  Pacottet,  and 
published  in  the  "Revue 
de  Viticulture."1 

According  to  these  investi- 
gations the  cause  of  the 
dropping  lies  in  the  peculiar 
structure  of  the  flower  itself. 

The  flowers  of  most  culti- 
vated varieties  of  grapes  are 
what  the  botanist  calls  ' '  per- 
fect."  That  is,  each  flower  has  the  two  elements  which  are  necessary 
for  the  development  of  the  perfect  fruit.  These  elements  are  the  pollen 
contained  in  the  anthers  and  the  ovules  contained  in  the  pistil.  Unless 
the  ovules  are  fertilized  by  normal  pollen  the  pistil  will  not  develop 
into  a  normal  grape  berry. 

There  are  several  defects  in  the  Muscat  flower  which  make  this 
necessary  pollination  more  uncertain  than  with  most  varieties,  and  it 
is  only  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  that  the  ovules  are  prop- 
erly fertilized. 

In  the  first  place,  owing  to  the  shortness  of  the  filaments  supporting 
the  anthers,  the  position  of  the  pollen  is  such  that  it  may  all  fall  off 
without  reaching  the  stigma,  which  is  a  part  of  the  pistil  through 
which  the  pollen  tube  obtains  access  to  the  ovule. 

In  the  second  place,  the  pollen  is  not  powdery  as  with  most  vines, 
but  waxy  and  with  a  tendency  to  cohere  in  masses.     This  renders  its 

1  "Sur.  la  Fecondation  Artificielle  de  la  Vigne,"  Revue  de  Viticulture,  T.  XXII, 
No.  551,  pp.  5-10.     Paris,  1904. 


A. 


A  B  C 

Fig.  19.    (After  Viala  and  Pacottet.) 

Normal  flower  of  the  vine,  with  filaments  as  long 

as  the  pistil. 
Defective  flower  of  the  vine,  with  filaments  shorter 

than  the  pistil. 
Defective  flower  of  the  vine,  with  abortive  pistil. 


156 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


distribution  by  wind  and  insects  much  less  certain!  The  pollen  grains 
are,  moreover,  often  imperfect,  and  most  of  them  are  incapable  of 
germination  and  performing  their  function,  even  if  they  reach  the 
stigma, 

This  is  shown  when  we  place  the  pollen  grains  in  a  weak  sugar 
solution.     Normal  pollen  germinates  readily  in  such  a  solution,   but 

that  of  Muscat  of 
Alexandria  germi- 
nates irregularly, 
imperfectly,  or  not 
at  all.  The  same 
result  occurs  if  the 
pollen  is  placed  on 
the  stigma  of  any 
variety  of  vine. 

Remedies.  —  In 
regions  where  this 
variety  has  been 
grown  for  centu- 
ries (Asia  Minor, 
northern  Africa, 
Spain)  it  is  usual 
to  plant  other 
varieties  having 
abundant  and 
strong  pollen 
among  the  Muscat 
vines.  This  prac- 
tice, while  not  re- 
moving the  trouble 
completely,  may  be 
of  use  in  Califor- 
nia. It  would  be 
well  in  planting  a 
Muscat  vineyard  to 
make  use  of  some 
of  the  varieties  which  have  shown  their  ability  to  produce  abundant 
and  vigorous  pollen.  The  proof  of  this  is  regular  setting  of  abundant 
crops.  The  pollinating  varieties  might  be  planted  in  neighboring  blocks, 
or,  better  still,  in  occasional  rows. 

It  is  necessary  not  only  that  the  pollinating  varieties  should  have 
good  pollen,  but  that  they  should  blossom  at  the  same  time  as  the 


Fig.  20.    Four-year  old  Muscat  of  proper  form. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN   CALIFORNIA.  157 

Muscat.  In  accordance  with  the  advice  of  Viala  and  Pacottet,  the 
pollen  of  Aramon  X  Rupestris  has  been  used  with  success  in  the  hot- 
houses of  Paris  for  the  artificial  fecundation  of  Muscat  flowers.  This 
is  a  resistant  stock  which  produces  an  abundance  of  blossoms  which 
are  completely  staminate,  and  therefore  incapable  of  producing  fruit 
themselves.  Their  pollen,  however,  is  extremely  vigorous,  and  causes 
the  fruit  of  other  varieties  to  set  well.  The  pollen  of  this  variety  is 
collected,  dried,  and,  at  the  proper  time,  dusted  on  to  the  Muscat 
blossoms.     As  this  varietv  blossoms  about  two  weeks  earlier  than  the 


Fig.  21.    Six-year-old  Muscat  of  usual  form. 

Muscat,  however,  it  could  not  be  used  for  cross-pollination  unless 
the  pollen  were  collected  and  applied  as  described,  which  is  of  course 
impracticable  in  a  vineyard. 

Most  of  the  varieties  cultivated  in  the  raisin  districts  blossom  about 
the  same  time  as  the  Muscat,  and  such  varieties  as  Palomino,  Perruno, 
Beba.  and  Burger,  which  always  set  their  fruit  well,  would  be  suitable 
for  the  purpose. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  noted  by  Viala 
and  Pacottet,  is  that  the  stigma  of  the  pistil  is  covered  with  a  drop 
of  liquid  which  forms  and  falls  two  or  three  times  a  day,  thus  removing 
pollen  grains  which  may  have  reached  the  stigma.  A  moist  atmosphere 
is,  therefore,  unfavorable  to  the  setting  of  Muscat. 


158 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


We  can  control  the  moisture  conditions  to  some  extent  by  avoiding- 
cultivation  or  irrigation  during  and  just  before  blossoming. 

The  air  near  the  ground  is  moister  than  that  a  little  higher  up,  and 
the  practice  of  pruning  Muscats  to  a  low,  prostrate  stump  is  unfavorable 
for  this  and  for  other  reasons. 

A  Muscat  vine,  like  any  other,  should  have  a  distinct  stem  or  trunk. 
This  trunk  should  be  smooth  and  without  spurs  or  scars.     This  trunk 


^S*  **'            \  1 

,1 

I 

i  j . 

^                       i 

"\f 

< 

hI  KT 

7X 

i               « 

*   Z^^' 

~r*^    ' 

'   08 

> 

Nk^ 

^^ 

Fig.  22.    Low  Muscat  raised  by  pruning. 

makes  it  possible  to  plow,  cultivate,  and  hoe  close  to  the  vine  without 
injuring  the  arms  and  spurs.  It  facilitates  the  removal  of  suckers 
from  below  the  ground,  and  holds  the  bearing  wood  high  enough  up  to 
keep  the  grapes  from  touching  the  ground.  How  high  this  trunk 
should  be  depends  on  various  conditions.  A  smooth  stem  twelve  inches 
in  length  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  the  branching  of  the  arms 
is  sufficient  to  give  the  advantage  mentioned. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  159 


IMPROVED  METHODS  OF  WINE-MAKING, 

By  F.  T.  BIOLETTI. 


The  main  work  in  enology  has  been  directed  to  demonstrating  and 
popularizing  certain  principles  and  methods  of  wine-making,  which 
have  been  shown  to  be  useful  by  the  experiments  of  the  California 
Experiment  Station. 

Cool  Fermentation. — The  greatly  needed  reform  of  the  control  of 
temperature  in  fermentation,  which  has  been  advocated  by  the  station 
for  many  years,  has  at  last  been  taken  up  extensively  by  the  wine- 
makers  of  the  State.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  general 
adoption  of  methods  of  insuring  cool  fermentation  will  result  in 
doubling  the  value  of  our  dry  wines.  Nothing  deters  the  sale  and 
expansion  of  the  market  for  our  fine  wines  so  much  as  the  production 
of  bad  wines  in  our  hotter  districts.  Such  wines  spoil  the  reputation 
of  all  our  wines.  If  all  the  dry  wines  made  in  California,  even  in  the 
hottest  and  most  unfavorable  districts,  were  good,  sound  and  wholesome, 
the  market  for  the  finer  and  higher  priced  wines  grown  on  the  slopes 
of  the  coast  ranges  would  quickly  expand. 

No  one  change  in  our  methods  can  have  so  much  influence  in  this 
direction  as  the  control  of  temperature  of  fermentation.  The  wines 
even  of  our  most  favorable  regions  can  be  improved  by  the  same  means. 

The  actual  method  of  control,  providing  it  is  effective,  is  simply  a 
question  of  economy.  The  first  attempts  of  the  wine-makers  were  by 
means  which  were  both  troublesome  and  inefficient.  Efficient  methods 
have  been  pointed  out  and  demonstrated  by  the  station.  The  most 
economical  methods  will  soon  be  found  by  the  wine-makers,  now  that 
they  are  convinced  of  the  utility  of  the  change. 

Heat '  Extraction. — The  new  method  of  wine-making,  described  in 
Bulletin  177,  has  been  given  a  fair  trial  and  the  results  on  the  whole 
have  been  satisfactory.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  good,  whole- 
some wine  of  remarkable  keeping  qualities  can  be  made  by  this  means. 
The  color  is  deeper  and  more  stable  than  that  of  wines  made  in  the 
usual  way  and  the  control  of  temperature  is  much  facilitated.  In 
general,  it  gives  greater  certainty  of  obtaining  a  good  and  absolutely 
sound  wine  than  the  older  methods.  Whether  the  quality  of  the  wine 
is  equal  to  that  of  the  best  wine  made  by  the  older  methods  is  still  in 
doubt.     It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  method  is  still 


160  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

new  and  imperfectly  understood.  Further  tests  are  needed  to  dem- 
onstrate whether  it  is  capable  of  producing  wines  of  the  highest  quality. 

The  method  has  been  taken  up  in  practice  in  a  limited  way,  and 
so  far  has  given  satisfaction. 

The  wines  made  in  this  way  have  shown  a  tendency  to  acquire  a 
"port"  taste,  which  is  undesirable  in  dry  wine.  This  taste,  however, 
may  be  due  to  the  character  of  the  grapes  used  more  than  to  the 
method.  None  of  the  red  grapes  grown  in  quantity  in  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  are  suitable  for  the  production  of  dry  red  wine  in  that  region. 
Any  grape  which,  like  the  Zinfandel,  dries  up  into  raisins  on  the  vine, 
or  easily  acquires  a  "rancio"  taste,  like  Mission  or  Grenache,  is  un- 
suited  for  the  making  of  dry  wine  in  a  hot  district. 

Varieties  for  Dry  Red  Wine  in  the  Interior  Valleys. — Before  the 
best  results  possible  in  the  district  are  obtained,  such  grapes  as  Valde- 
penas,  Lagrain,  St.  Macaire,  Gros  Mansenc,  Barbera,  and  Pagodebito, 
which  have  proved  to  retain  their  color,  acidity  and  quality  in  the 
district,  will  have  to  be  grown.  All  these  varieties  have  given  good 
results,  both  in  quality  and  quantity,  for  years  at  the  Tulare  Experi- 
ment Station. 

Pure  Yeast. —Experiments  with  pure  yeasts  have  been  carried  out 
by  the  station  for  many  years.  It  is  only  within  the  last  three  years, 
however,  that  tests  on  a  large  scale  have  been  undertaken.  These  tests 
abundantly  demonstrate  their  utility  in  the  hands  of  efficient  wine- 
makers. 

They  are  particularly  advantageous  in  the  case  of  white  wines. 
When  used  in  connection  with  the  preliminary  defecation1  of  the 
must,  remarkable  improvements  have  been  noted  in  the  quality.  If  they 
had  no  other  good  effect,  the  completeness  of  the  fermentation  during 
the  vintage,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  the  wines  become  bright, 
bottle  ripe  and  ready  for  consumption,  are  sufficient  to  justify  their  use. 

Many  yeasts  have  been  tested  by  the  station,  but  the  best  results, 
both  for  red  and  white  wine,  have  been  obtained  by  the  use  of  one 
originating  in  Champagne. 

This  yeast  is  strong  enough  to  ferment  wines  perfectly  dry  with 
over  15%  of  alcohol.  It  can  withstand  as  high  temperatures  and  as 
large  an  amount  of  sulfurous  acid  as  any  of  our  native  yeasts  which 
have  been  tested.  One  of  its  principal  advantages  is  its  tendency  to 
form  a  concrete  sediment,  which  remains  at  the  bottom  of  the  fermen- 
ting  nmsl  or  wine,  and  very  much  facilitates  the  racking  and  clearing. 
11  fms  nlso  been  found  equally  suitable  for  champagne  and  cider-making. 

1  See  Circular  22. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN   CALIFORNIA.  161 

Several  wine-makers  have  used  this  yeast  in  their  wineries,  and  it 
has  given  general  satisfaction. 

An  idea  of  the  benefits  to  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  suitable  pure 
yeast  is  given  by  a  series  of  tests  of  the  organisms  existing  on  the 
grapes  at  the  Tulare  Experiment  Station. 

A  large  number  of  varieties  of  grapes  were  obtained  at  two  different 
times  from  Tulare,  and  an  investigation  of  the  organisms  existing  on 
them  and  capable  of  growing  in  grape  must  was  made.  Although  a 
large  number  of  yeast  and  yeast-like  organisms  were  isolated,  not  a 
single  specimen  of  Saccharomyces  ellipsoideus,  the  true  wine  yeast, 
was  found.  Many  of  the  yeasts  and  pseudo-yeasts  were  tested  by 
Mr.  Hans  C.  Holm  of  the  station,  and  all  were  found  in  various  degrees 
useless  or  detrimental  to  the  wine. 

As  there  are  no  wineries  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Tulare  Experiment 
Station,  this  is  of  course  an  extreme  case.  In  all  grapes  examined, 
however,  from  all  sources,  the  true  wine  yeast  was  always  found  in 
a  very  small  minority,  and  accompanied  by  other  organisms  which, 
if  allowed  to  develop,  would  undoubtedly  affect  the  wine  unfavorably. 

The  best  way  of  avoiding  these  unfavorable  effects  is  by  the  use 
of  a  starter  of  pure  yeast,  preceded,  in  the  case  of  white  wine,  with  a 
thorough  defecation  of  the  must. 

If  this  measure  is  properly  carried  out  and  accompanied  by  methods 
of  manipulation  which  will  ensure  a  pure  and  thorough  fermentation, 
no  trouble  will  be  experienced  with  " stuck  tanks,"  high  volatile  acid, 
" mousey  tastes,"  permanently  cloudy  wines,  or  any  of  the  numerous 
troublesome  and  costly  defects  which  afflict  so  many  of  our  wines 
made  in  the  old,  haphazard  way. 

The  utility  of  pure  yeast  in  our  Californian  wineries  may  be  con- 
sidered as  demonstrated,  but  too  much  must  not  be  expected  of  it.  It 
will  not  prevent  the  ill  effects  of  careless  or  ignorant  practice,  and 
no  wine-maker  who  can  not  make  good  wine  without  pure  yeast  will 
succeed  with  it.  For  the  careful  and  intelligent  wine-maker,  it  will 
be  a  great  aid  in  the  improvement  of  his  wines,  and  in  the  added 
certainty  of  good  results.  To  the  careless  or  unskillful,  it  may  even 
be  a  source  of  danger  by  accelerating  his  fermentations  and  thus  in- 
creasing the  temperature. 

Those  who  wish  to  test  pure  yeast  are  advised  to  commence  with 
a  certified  culture  from  the  station,  to  follow  the  directions  of  Circular 
23  carefully,  and  to  commence  at  first  only  with  white  wine.  With 
white  wine  the  good  effects  of  pure  yeast  are  more  striking,  and  the 
possibility  of  too  strongly  accelerating  the  fermentation  less  to  be 
feared. 

4— Bul.  197 


162 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


COLOR    GRAPES. 

In  many  parts  of  the  State  the  amount  of  color  in  the  grapes  is 
insufficient  for  the  quantity  of  red  wine  which  it  is  desired  to  make. 

The  station  has,  therefore,  given  considerable  attention  to  the  testing 
of  the  color  capabilities  of  various  varieties  in  different  sections,  and  to 
the  devising  of  methods  of  utilizing  economically  the  color  which  exists 
in  the  grapes  now  grown. 

A  variety  which  has  abundant  color  in  one  locality  may  have  almost 
none  in  another.  Carignane,  Grenache,  Mourastel,  Aramon,  which 
usually  contain  sufficient  color  in  the  coast  counties,  can  be  used  only 
for  white  wine  in  the  hotter  parts  of  the  central  valleys  unless  blended 
with  color  grapes. 

The  color  of  all  varieties  is  less  in  quantity  and  less  stable  in  char- 
acter in  the  warmer  climates  and  richer  soils.  A  careful  choice  of 
varieties  in  this  respect  is,  therefore,  necessary  in  the  central  valleys. 
The  following  table,  compiled  from  a  large  number  of  tests,  illustrates 
this  point : 

Colors  of  Grapes  in  Cool  and  in  Hot  Localities. 


Variety. 


St.  Macaire 

Gros  Mansenc 

Gamai  Teinturier  _ 

Barbera 

Ref  osco 

Petite  Sirah 

Petit  Bouschet 

Alicante  Bouschet 

Valdepenas 

Pagodebito 

Alicante  Ganzin.__ 
Lagrain 


Cool  Localities. 


At 
Pressing. 


1VR  189 
2VR  119 
2VR  96 
1VR  88 
1VR  93 
VR133 
VR239 
1VR  151 
1VR  129 


VR667 


At  4  to  6 
Months. 


2VR  66 

3VR  61 

3VR  38 

3VR  28 

4VR  29 

3VR  48 

IV  R  74 

1VR  53 


Hot  Localities. 


At 
Pressing. 


VR  138 

3VR  64 

5VR  36 

1VR  69 

1VR  54 

3VR  44 

3VR  49 

4VR  40 

1VR  35 

VR  49 


At  4  to  6 
Months. 


1VR     63 


2VR  30 

4VR  24 

5VR  11 

5VR  20 

5VR  17 

Y  13 

2R  15 

4R  13 

2R  12 


This  indicates  that  for  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  the  best  grapes  for 
color,  of  those  commonly  grown  in  the  State,  are  St.  Macaire,  Gros 
Mansenc,  and  Barbera,  in  the  order  named.  Wines  made  from  these 
varieties  at  Tulare  and  Fresno  have  from  half  again  as  much  to  three 
times  as  much  color  as  the  Bouschets,  and  the  tint  is  better  and  more 
stable.  In  aging,  the  other  varieties,  such  as  the  Bouschet  and  Sirah, 
retain  barely  enough  color  for  a  standard  wine,  and  the  tint  becomes 
very  yellow.  None  but  the  three  varieties  mentioned,  together  with  the 
Refosco,  have  always  kept  enough  to  allow  them  to  be  mixed  with 
varieties  lacking  in  color. 

Besides  color,  these  three  varieties  retain  high  acidity  and  a  fresh- 
ness which  make  them  very  valuable  in  this  district  for  dry  red  wine. 

The  color  of  a  wine  depends  not  only  on  the  character  of  the  grape 


Bulletin  197. 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


163 


from  which  it  is  made,  but  also  on  the  process  of  manufacture.  The 
utility  of  sulfur  fumes  and  sulfites  in  dissolving  and  keeping  the  color 
has  already  been  pointed  out  in  Bulletin  177.  It  has  also  been  shown 
in  the  same  publication  that  the  heat-extraction  method  also  results  in 
deeper  and  better  color  than  the  ordinary  method  of  fermentation. 
This  is  exemplified  further  by  some  tests  made  on  grapes  grown  at 
the  Tulare  Experiment  Station. 

These  grapes  were  received  on  September  17,  1907,  and  each  variety 
divided  into  two  equal  lots.  One  was  fermented  in  the  ordinary  way, 
and  the  other  was  heated  to  65° C.  for  three  hours,  and  the  juice  after 
pressing  out  fermented  without  the  skins.  The  results  are  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


Extraction  of  Color  by  Heat  and  by  Fermentation. 


Variety. 


Composition. 


Solid 
Contents. 


Acid. 


Heated  Must. 


Kefore 
Fermen- 
tation. 


After 
Fermen- 
tation. 


Fer- 
mented 
on  Skins. 


Lagrain 

Pagodebito 

St.  Macaire 

Alicante  Bouschet 

Gros  Mansenc 

Valdepenas 

Beclan 


M^an 


Lagrain 

Pagodebito 

St.  Macaire 

Alicante  Bouschet 

Gros  Mansenc 

Valdepenas 

Beclan 


Mean 


25.0 
22.0 
25.0 
20.7 
24.0 
23.0 
22.0 


.60 
.67 
.83 

.71 
.83 
.52 
.45 


VR  190 

VR  148 

VR  148 

1VR  118 

VR  105 

VR  80 

VR  78 


2VR  89 

1VR  74 

1VR  52 

2VR  56 

1VR  55 

VR  33 

1VR  30 


1VR  63 

VR  49 

2VR  41 

3VR  44 

1VR  41 

1VR  26 

2VR  17 


VR  124    1VR   56     2VR   40 


Color  Remaining  at 


1  Month. 


Heat  Ex- 
traction. 


2VR 
2VR 
5VR 
3VR 
3VR 
2VR 
3VR 


3VR    42 


Ordinary 
Fermen- 
tation. 


2VR 
1VR 
1VR 
1VR 
1VR 
1VR 
4VR 


2VR    39 


10  Months 


Heat  Ex- 
traction. 


4VR    47 

5VR    38 


4VR  34 

3VR  15 

2VR  27 

5VR  12 


3VR    39 


Ordinary 
Fermen- 
tation. 


R 
3R 
3VR 
4VR 
3VR 
5VR 
2R 


16 
24 
20 
20 
23 
16 
10 


5VR    18 


Summary  of  Results  in  Table. 

After 
Fermen- 
tation. 

After  1 
Month. 

After  10 
Months. 

A 

Heated  must     _                                                        VR  124 

B 

Fermented  must .                                                    ____   1VR    56 

3VR    42 
2VR    39 

3VR    39 

C 

Ordinary  fermentation                                                             2VR    40 

5VR    18 

164  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

These  tests  illustrate  the  beneficial  effect  of  heat  extraction  on  the 
amount  and  the  permanency  of  the  color.  This  is  shown  in  table,  where 
A  represents  the  total  average  amount  of  color  extracted  by  heat. 
This  may  be  taken  to  indicate  the  total  amount  of  color  contained  in 
the  grapes.  Of  this  amount  45%  remained  in  the  wine  immediately 
after  fermentation,  while  only  32%  was  extracted  by  the  ordinary 
process  of  fermentation. 

At  the  end  of  ten  months  the  wines  made  by  heat  extraction  had 
lost  48%-  of  their  color,  and  those  made  by  the  ordinary  method,  55%. 
At  ten  months,  therefore,  the  wines  made  by  heat  extraction  had  on  the 
average  61%  more  color  than  those  made  by  the  ordinary  method 
(see  B,  C  in  table),  and  the  quality  of  the  color,  3VR,  instead  of  5VR. 
was  also  superior.  These  results  corroborate  those  reported  on  page  28 
of  Bulletin  177,  where  experiments  made  on  a  large  scale  under  the 
conditions  of  an  ordinary  winery  showed  a  gain  of  42%  at  four  and 
one  half  months  in  favor  of  heat  extraction.  The  gain  appears  to  be 
the  greater  the  older  the  wine,  showing  superior  stability  of  the  color 
when  extracted  by  heat. 

The  need  of  more  color  in  the  wines  of  many  districts  has  led  to 
the  planting  of  a  considerable  area  of  Lenoir  vineyards.  The  Lenoir 
is  an  unsatisfactory  grape  for  this  purpose,  however.  The  color  is 
unstable  and  quickly  becomes  yellowish.  The  color,  even  at  first,  is 
little  if  at  all  deeper  than  that  of  several  vinifera  varieties,  and  if 
any  considerable  proportion  of  the  grapes  are  used  they  very  much 
diminish  the  quality  of  the  wine. 

A  recently  imported  grape,  the  Alicante  Ganzin,  gives  promise  of 
being  much  superior  for  this  purpose.  This  vine  is  the  product  of 
a  cross  between  Alicante-Bouschet  and  Aramon-Rupestris,  and  is,  there- 
fore, three  fourths  vinifera.  Its  resistance  to  Phylloxera  is  about  equal 
to  that  of  Lenoir,  and  it  can,  therefore,  be  safely  planted  without 
grafting  only  in  the  rich,  deep  soils  where  Lenoir  resists. 

The  wine  is  better  than  that  of  Lenoir  and  almost  without  foxy 
or  other  undesirable  flavor.  Its  value  consists  in  the  great  intensity 
of  its  color.  A  sample  of  the  grapes  grown  by  Mr.  F.  T.  Swett  of 
Martinez  was  received  at  the  laboratory  and  tested  for  color,  with  the 
following  results: 

Color  of  Alicante  Ganzin. 

A.  Heated  to  90°  ;  color  of  must VR  —  800 

A,  after  fermentation,  color  of  wine VR  —  667 

B.  Fermented  on  skins;  color  of  wine VR  —  667 

The  color  is  thus  shown  to  be  of  the  best  tint,  and  more  than  twenty 
times  as  intense  as  a  good  Zinfandel,  or  twice  as  intense  as  the  darkest 
Bouschet. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN   CALIFORNIA.  165 

In  order  to  test  the  color  remaining  in  the  pressed  pomace  it  was 
mixed  with  white  must,  and  fermented,  with  the  following  results: 

C.  1   part  pomace   from   A  +  4   parts   white   must  +  .4%    citric    acid. 

Color  of  wine    2VR  —  66 

D.  1   part  pomace   from    B  +  4   parts   white   must  +  .4%    citric   acid. 

Color  of  wine    2 VR  —  67 

This  shows  that  all  the  color  remaining  in  the  pressed  pomace  can 
be  extracted  and  utilized  by  refermenting  with  white  of  lightly  colored 
grapes.  The  wines  after  fermentation  were  kept  in  bottles,  and  three 
weeks  later  showed  the  following  amounts  of  color : 

A.  VR  441 loss  33% 

B.  VR  364 loss  45% 

C.  2VR     56 loss  15% 

D.  2  VR     57 loss  15% 

This  indicates  the  superior  stability  of  the .  color  extracted  by  heat 
(A)  over  that  extracted  by  the  usual  method  of  fermentation  (B). 
It  also  shows  that  blending  should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible,  pre- 
ferably in  the  fermenting  vat,  in  order  to  preserve  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  color. 

The  color  of  this  wine  when  undiluted  is  so  deep  that  it  can  be 
used  for  writing.  It  may  be  useful  for  coloring  jellies  in  place  of  the 
various  coloring  matters  often  used.  One  ton  of  Alicante  Ganzin 
fermented  with  twenty-five  tons  of  white  grapes  would  give  a  red 
wine  of  standard  intensity  of  color.  If  fermented  with  red  grapes, 
which  were  too  light,  but  still  had  some  color,  one  ton  would  be  suffi- 
cient to  bring  fifty  to  seventy-five  tons  up  to  the  standard. 

GRAPES   FOR   DRY    WINE   IN    THE    SAN    JOAQUIN    VALLEY. 

In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  varieties,  red  more  espe- 
cially, which  have  given  good  results  in  the  coast  regions  fail  to 
produce  good  dry  wines  in  the  hot  interior.  They  are  usually  deficient 
in  acidity  and  color,  many  produce  wines  of  flat  and  insipid  character, 
and  a  large  number  acquire  a  ''port"  taste  which  is  undesirable  in 
dry  wine.  Certain  varieties  which  yield  a  fair  dry  wine  in  the  cooler 
regions  can  be  used  successfully  for  port  in  the  hotter.  Examples 
of  this  are  Zinfandel,  Alicante  Bouschet,  Charbono,  and  Carignane. 
Varieties  such  as  Grenache,  Mataro,  Mission,  Trousseau,  Chauche  Noir, 
and  California  Black  Malvoisie  do  not  produce  a  good  dry  wine  any- 
where. This  includes  practically  all  the  red  wine  grapes  which  are 
grown  to  any  considerable  extent  in  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento 
valleys.  In  the  central  and  cooler  parts  of  this  region  the  Zinfandel, 
Carignane,  and  Alicante  Bouschet  give  good  crops  of  passable  quality. 
In  the  hotter  parts  their  wine  is  very  defective. 


166 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


Nearly  all  of  these  varieties,  however,  could  be  used  successfully  if 

they  could  be  blended  in  the  fermenting  vat,  or  soon  after,  with  25% 

to  50%  of  other  varieties,  which  have  the  characteristic  which  they  lack. 

The  main  defects  of  the  wine  of  the  varieties  at  present  grown  in 

the  interior  are  low  acidity,  insufficient  and  unstable  color,  a  tendency 

to  oxidation 
(rancio  taste), 
and  a  lack  of  that 
indefinable  qual- 
ity known  as 
"freshness."  The 
Zinfandel.  espe- 
cially the  second 
crop,  when  picked 
in  prime  condi- 
tion, is  perhaps 
the  best  of  all  the 
varieties  at  pres- 
ent grown  in  the 
interior.  It  is, 
however,  too  sub- 
ject to  drying  up 
and  black  mold  to 
be  relied  upon  as 
a  dry  wine  grape. 
The  peculiar 
flavor  of  the  Zin- 
fandel, moreover, 
becomes  too  in- 
tense in  the  hotter 
regions. 

Of  all  the  varie- 
ties which  the 
station  has 'tested 
in  the  interior 
valleys,  that 
which    combines 

the  largest  number  of  good  points  as  a  dry  wine  grape  is  the  Valdepenas. 
This  variety,  originating  in  Spain,  is  unsatisfactory  in  cool  regions. 
In  Xapa  and  Sonoma  its  bearing  is  insufficient,  and  the  wine  is  harsh 
and  without  high  quality.  These  qualities,  even  there,  are  modified 
and  improved  by  grafting  on  resistant  stock,  especially  on  Riparia,  and 
in  the  hotter  parts  of  the  interior  they  disappear  completely. 


Fig.  23.    Valdepenas.    Five  eighths  real  diameter.    Bunch 
one  fourth  natural  size. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE   CULTURE   JN   CALIFORNIA.  167 

The  Valdepenas  at  Tulare  has  produced  regularly  large  crops  of 
fine,  clean  grapes  with  short  pruning.  It  is  not  subject  to  sunburn 
or  black  mold,  and  the  grapes  will  stay  on  the  vines,  without  injury, 
as  long  as  those  of  any  variety.  The  wine  made  from  it  has  always  been 
satisfactory,  showing  color,  acidity,  and  freshness  almost  equal  to 
wines  made  in  the  coast  counties.  If  only  one  variety  were  to  be 
planted  for  dry  red  wine  in  the  upper  San  Joaquin  Valley,  this  un- 
doubtedly would  be  the  best  of  any  that  have  been  tried. 

What  is  needed,  however,  perhaps  more  than  a  variety  which  will 
make  a  good  wine  itself  in  this  district,  is  one  which  by  blending  can 
be  used  to  correct  the  deficiencies  and  defects  of  the  varieties  already 
growing  there.  Varieties  which  will  bear  good  crops  of  grapes  with 
full  acid  and  color  would  be  of  great  service  to  the  wine-makers  of  the 
interior,  and  enable  them  to  bring  up  the  quality  to  the  Zinfandel, 
Carignane,  and  Bouschet  sufficiently  to  make  a  good,  sound,  bulk,  dry 
wine. 

The  experience  at  the  Tulare  Experiment  Station,  where  a  large  num- 
ber of  varieties  have  been  grown  for  twenty  years,  enables  us  to  recom- 
mend certain  good  bearing  varieties  for  this  purpose.  Those  which 
have  given  the  best  results  are : 

Valdepenas    quality 

Lagrain    color  and  quality 

St.  Macaire   color  and  acidity 

Gros  Mansenc color  and  acidity 

Barbera color  and  acidity 

Pagadebito    color  and  acidity 

Varieties  for  Dry  White  Wine  in  the  Interior  Valleys. — Dry  white 
wines  of  fair  quality  can  be  made  in  the  hot  interior  districts  more 
easily  than  red.  They  have  some  of  the  same  defects  as  the  red,  viz., 
lack  of  acidity,  flavor,  and  freshness.  By  proper  choice  of  varieties, 
and  careful  methods  of  manufacture,  however,  marketable  white  wines 
can  be  made  with  some  of  the  varieties  now  growing  there. 

The  Burger  is  peculiarly  suited  to  these  regions.  It  yields  a  neutral, 
clean  tasting  wine,  which  only  requires  blending  with  a  full  flavored 
wine  from  the  coast  regions  to  be  worthy  of  aging  and  bottling.  This 
was  abundantly  demonstrated  by  the  experiments  detailed  in  Bulletin 
177.  Burger  wine,  made  in  experiment  VIII,  developed  into  a  sur- 
prisingly clean  tasting,  agreeable  wine.  The  Burger  retains  its  acidity 
better  than  most  varieties  at  Tulare,  but  still  requires  blending  with 
coast-county  wines  or  the  addition  of  citric  acid.  The  white  varieties 
which  have  developed  the  highest  acidity  have  been  West's  White 
Prolific  and  Vernaccia  Sarda. 

The  Johannisberger  and  Franken  Riesling  have  given  unexpectedly 
good  results  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.     The  wines  of  experiments 


168  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

VI  and  Via  of  Bulletin  177  have  developed  into  wines  showing  flavor- 
and  bouquet  that  almost  entitle  them  to  be  classed  as  fine  wines.  They 
have,  however,  a  certain  heaviness  that  should  be  corrected  by  judicious, 
blending. 

That  the  Rieslings,  which  produce  the  finest  wines  of  the  Rhine, 
should  succeed  under  the  totally  different  conditions  of  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley,  shows  that  the  origin  of  a  variety  is  not  always  a  safe  guide  as 
to  its  adaptability.  The  Sercial,  from  which  the  fine  dry  wines  of  the 
Island  of  Madeira  are  made,  is  said  to  be  identical  with  the  White 
Riesling  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  famous  wines  of  Schloss, 
Johannisberg. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  169 


A  STUDY  OF  YEASTS  FROM  CALIFORNIA  GRAPES.1 

By  HANS  C.  HOLM. 


The  varieties  of  Saccharomycetes  and  Pseudo-yeasts,  described  in  the 
following  pages,  were  obtained  originally  from  California  grapes,  of 
which  some  were  sent  from  the  Experiment  Station  at  Tulare,  and 
others  were  purchased  at  the  local  market  in  Berkeley. 

The  line  of  experiments  was  carried  out  with  the  intention  of 
determining  the  amount  of  alcohol  which  the  various  yeasts  were  able 
to  form  in  a  sugar  solution,  and  whether  the  yeasts  on  California 
grapes  mainly  consisted  of  types  which  might  be  depended  on  in 
wine-making.  The  fermentations  were  not  restricted  to  must  alone,  but 
artificial  media  were  made  up  in  order  to  study  the  action  of  the 
yeasts  on  various  sugars,  that  is,  on  dextrose  and  on  saccharose.  The 
so-called  Laurent  solution  (see  below)  was  used,  and  the  specific  sugar 
added.  Comparative  tests  of  fermentation  carried  out  in  grape-must, 
saccharose  and  dextrose  solutions  were  made,  and  the  results  will  be 
found  below  (see  table). 

The  yeasts  were  all  used  in  pure  cultures  only;  the  pure  cultures 
were  made  by  Koch's  plate-culture  methods,  and  in  all  cases  not  less 
than  two  sequent  series  of  plate-cultures  were  made  in  order  to  eliminate 
the  chance  of  impurity — that  is,  the  presence  of  more  than  one  species 
in  the  culture — to  the  least  possible  figure.  The  gelatine  used  in  these 
experiments  was  a  gelatine  made  up  of  must  (10%  Balling),  14% 
gelatine  and  .05%  phosphate  of  potassium.  It  was  found  that  a 
percentage  of  gelatine  less  than  14%  would  be  impracticable,  as  the 
gelatine  hardens  with  difficulty  in  the  hot  summers  of  California,  and 
a  liquefaction  of  gelatine  in  the  plate-cultures  would  of  course  make 
the  experiment  uncertain,  if  not  entirely  unreliable : 

Laurent's  Solution. 

Ammonium  sulphate    4.71  grms.  per  liter 

Potassium  phosphate    0.75  grms.  per  liter 

Magnesium  sulphate 0.10  grms.  per  liter 

To  this  solution  any  sugar  may  be  added  in  the  desired  quantity. 

The  yeasts  examined  have  been  numbered  for  the  sake  of  reference, 
and  pure  cultures  of  these  varieties  are  left  in  the  pure-yeast  collec- 
tion belonging  to  the  Department  of  Viticulture,  University  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

x  Written  as  a  Thesis  for  the  degree  of  B.S. 


170  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

It  was  the  experimenter's  idea  that  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
formed  during  fermentation  might  give  some  comparative  results  if 
collected  in  fermentation  tubes,  and  that  in  this  way  it  might  be  possible 
to  eliminate  all  those  yeasts  which  do  not  ferment  sugar  at  all,  and  also 
to  classify  the  varieties  of  yeasts  as  "high"  and  "low"  fermenting 
yeasts.  The  result  was  a  rather  negative  one,  it  being  found  that  most 
of  the  varieties  were  strictly  obligate-aerobic,  and  that  they  under  no 
conditions  could  be  brought  to  form  any  carbonic  acid  gas  (or  other 
gas)  in  the  closed  end  of  the  fermentation  tube.  The  further  details 
of  these  experiments  are  stated  on  the  following  pages. 

SACCHAROMYCES   ELLIPSOIDEUS  BIOLETTI   I. 

(This  variety  has  been  named  after  Assistant  Professor  F.  T.  Bioletti,  Depart- 
ment of  Viticulture,  University  of  California.) 

The  yeast  was  isolated  from  grapes  purchased  on  the  local  market 
in  Berkeley.  The  form  of  the  yeast  as  seen  under  the  microscope  is 
elliptical. 

A  10%  water  solution  of  cane  sugar  in  a  fermentation  tube  was 
inoculated  and  placed  in  the  incubator  at  25°  C.  After  four  days  the 
solution  was  examined.  Neither  film  formation  nor  gas  was  noticed. 
In  order  to  determine  whether  this  inactivity  was  due  to  lack  of 
nutritive  contents  a  parallel  experiment  was  carried  out,  with  a  Laurent 
solution  containing  1%  of  cane  sugar.  After  being  placed  for  four 
days  in  the  incubator  at  temperatures  between  22° C.  and  25 °C.  the 
result  may  be  stated  as  follows:  No  growth,  no  gas,  no  film,  and  but 
a  slight  turbidity,  indicating  the  growth  of  the  yeast,  but  apparently 
without  gas  formation. 

A  fermentation  tube  containing  10%  must  was  next  inoculated  with 
Sacch.  Ellip.  B.  I,  and  placed  in  the  incubator  at  25° C.  After  twenty- 
four  hours  no  gas  or  turbidity  was  noticed,  but  on  the  following  day 
gas  formation  began,  and  gradually  a  large  amount  was  formed  in 
the  closed  tube.  The  gas  was  tested  with  a  5%  KOH  solution,  and 
found  to  be  carbonic  acid.  The  gas  formation  now  became  so  rapid 
that  it  was  evident  that  a  10%  must  was  much  too  concentrated,  and 
for  matter  of  comparison  with  results  from  other  yeasts  would  have 
to  be  replaced  by  a  1%  solution.  However,  the  experiment  with  the 
use  of  fermentation  tubes  was  not  carried  any  further  on  this  yeast, 
because  the  experiments  on  the  other  varieties  showed  the  fermentation 
tubes  to  be  unsuited  to  comparative  tests. 

A  series  of  experiments  was  now  carried  out  on  Sacch.  Ellip. 
B.  I,  as  well  as  on  all  the  other  yeasts  isolated  from  Californian  grapes. 
Ordinary  must,  as  well  as  Laurent's  solutions,  were  inoculated  with  the 
various  yeasts,  and  the  alcohol  formed  was  determined  by  distillation. 


Bulletin  197.  '      GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  171 

The  specific  gravity  was  taken  by  means  of  a  picnometer,  and  Windish  's 
tables  (Berlin,  1893)  were  referred  to.  For  the  determination  of 
extract  the  specific  gravity  was  taken,  and  the  corresponding  per  cent 
of  extract  was  found  from  the  tables. 

A  must  containing  21.67%  Balling  was  inoculated  with  Sacch. 
Ellip.  B.  I,  and  the  fermentation  was  carried  through  at  an  average 
temperature  of  24° C.  The  yeast  settled  well,  and  the  liquid  remained 
clear  without  any  film  formation,  and  a  high  aroma  was  noticed.  After 
eighteen  days  the  fermentation  was  at  a  standstill,  and  an  analysis 
showed  the  amount  of  alcohol  to  be  10.61%,  leaving  2.69%  of  extract  in 
the  fermented  liquid. 

The  same  yeast  was  next  inoculated  in  a  Laurent  solution  to  which 
saccharose  had  been  added  until  the  solution  showed  a  19.68%  Balling. 
After  the  fermentation  had  ceased,  that  is,  after  eighteen  days  at  a 
temperature  of  about  25°  C,  the  alcohol  was  found  to  be  2.09%  by 
volume,  leaving  12.19%  Balling  in  the  liquid  after  fermentation.  The 
yeast  had  settled  well  and  no  film  formation  was  noticed. 

A  Laurent  solution  made  up  with  the  addition  of  dextrose  was  next 
inoculated,  and  after  eighteen  days  at  23 °C.  the  alcohol  was  found  to  be 
3.49  by  volume.  The  extract  in  the  dealcoholized  must  was  found  to 
be  5.87%  Balling.  The  yeast  had  settled  well,  leaving  the  liquid  bright, 
and  a  high  aroma  was  noticed. 

These  results  show  that  the  yeast  has  a  very  slight  inverting  power, 
because  the  cane  sugar  remained  practically  unfermented.  The  results 
also  tend  to  show  that  the  Laurent  solution  is  a  rather  unsatisfactory 
medium,  as  far  as  yeast  is  concerned;  and  the  results  derived  from 
fermentations  with  other  yeasts  only  verify  this  conclusion.  The 
importance  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the  medium  is  clearly 
illustrated  in  the  results  from  the  three  experiments,  carried  out 
respectively  with  must,  cane  sugar  solution,  and  dextrose  solution, 
the  two  latter  sugars  being  dissolved  in  Laurent  solution.  The  yeast 
grows  best  in  its  natural  medium,  and  the  application  of  an  artificial 
solution,  as  that  of  Laurent,  can  only  be  recommended  in  special  cases 
where  the  activity  of  the  yeast  on  a  specific  kind  of  sugar  is  to  be 
determined.  It  is  here  of  special  importance  that  the  liquid  does  not 
contain  even  traces  of  acid,  as  an  acid  solution  would  gradually  of 
itself  act  on  the  sugar  and  change  the  saccharose  into  invert-sugar. 

YEAST  26.     FROM  BURGER  GRAPES. 

This  yeast  was  obtained  from  "Burger"  grapes  from  Tulare.  The 
crushed  grapes  were  placed  in  the  incubator  for  four  days  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  30° C.  Dilution  cultures  were  made,  and  the  plates  showed 
besides  the  omnipresent  Apiculatus  yeast,  another  yeast  resembling  a 


172  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

Mycoderma  in  shape  and  size.  A  pure  culture  was  made  of  this 
variety,  and  named  "yeast  26."  Experiments  were  carried  out  with 
the  pure  yeast,  and  the  results  are  as  stated  in  the  following: 

With  Fermentation  Tubes:  (a)  A  12%  grape-must  was  inoculated. 
A  gray  film  formed  on  the  surface,  and  a  large  amount  of  gas  collected 
in  the  closed  tube.  The  film  formed  by  this  yeast  differs  greatly  from 
the  film  formed  by  another  variety  of  yeast  described  later,  namely, 
yeast  28. 

(6)  Inoculation  in  a  10%  cane-sugar  solution:  No  gas  was  formed, 
but  after  four  days  a  light  gray  film  was  formed  on  the  surface  and  the 
solution  showed  a  slight  turbidity. 

(c)  Inoculation  in  a  Laurent  •  solution  containing  1%  saccharose: 
The  growth  of  the  yeast  was  most  vigorous,  but  no  gas  was  produced 
after  an  incubation  period  of  nine  days.  A  gray  film  was  formed  and 
the  liquid  became  turbid.  The  fermentation  was  carried  out  at  a 
temperature  of  23° C.  The  microscopical  appearance  of  the  yeast 
was  that  of  an  elliptical  yeast  rather  than  that  of  a  Mycoderma;  but 
it  may  be  stated  that  this  experiment,  as  well  as  all  the  rest  in  this  series 
of  investigations,  clearly  showed  that  the  general  form  of  the  yeast 
cells  was  not  to  be  considered  a  constant,  but  a  variable  quantity, 
which  might  be  said  to  be  a  function  of  the  specific  medium  in  which 
the  yeast  was  grown.  This  yeast  forms,  when  grown  on  must-gelatine, 
cells  resembling  the  cells  of  a  Mycoderma  form. 

(d)  A  fermentation  tube  containing  a  must  showing  10%  Balling 
was  inoculated  with  the  pure  yeast.  A  small  amount  of  gas  collected 
in  the  closed  tube,  the  liquid  became  turbid,  and  a  gray  film  was 
formed. 

For  the  Determination  of  Alcohol:  (a)  A  must  containing  21.67% 
Balling  was  inoculated  and  placed  for  eighteen  days  in  incubator  at 
a  temperature  of  23 °C.  The  alcohol  was  determined  by  distillation 
and  found  to  be  3.78%  by  volume;  12.12%  extract  was  left  in  the  must 
after  fermentation. 

(6)  Laurent's  solution  containing  about  19.68%  saccharose  was 
inoculated,  and  after  eighteen  days  examined.  The  content  of  alcohol 
was  found  to  be  1.14%  by  volume,  leaving  12.71%  extract  unfermented. 

(c)  A  Laurent's  solution,  with  addition  of  dextrose,  was  next  in- 
oculated. The  strength  of  the  solution  was  12.84%  Balling.  Alcohol 
formed  after  eighteen  days  of  fermentation  was  5.10%  by  volume, 
leaving  1.76%  extract  unfermented. 

Thjs  yeast  formed  more  alcohol  in  the  artificial  dextrose  solution 
than  in  the  must.  It  has  a  slight  inverting  power,  and  seems  to  grow  in 
saccharose  solution  without  forming  alcohol  in  considerable  quantity. 


Bulletin  197.  GRAPE  CULTURE  IN  CALIFORNIA.  173 

The    yeast    is    not    strictly    obligate-aerobic,    but    rather    facultative- 
anaerobic. 

YEAST  28.    .FROM  ZINFANDEL  GRAPES. 
This  is  a  pure  culture  of  a  variety  of  yeast  found  on  Zinfandel  from 
Tulare  Experiment  Station. 

With  Fermentation  Tubes:  (a)  Inoculation  in  a  10%  grape-must. 
After  five  days  at  23° C.  no  gas  appeared;  liquid  became  turbid  and  a 
film  was  formed,  differing  in  appearance  from  that  of  yeast  26. 

(&)  In  Laurent's  solution  containing  1%  saccharose  the  yeast  pro- 
duced a  gray  film,  a  strong  growth,  and  turbidity;  the  macroscopical 
appearance  was  in  every  respect  similar  to  that  of  yeast  26,  but  the 
miscroscopical  examination  showed  very  long  sausage-formed  cells, 
recalling  a  Pastorianus  form. 

For  the  Determination  of  Alcohol:  (a)  Inoculation  in  must  of 
21.67%  Balling  gave  5.03%  alcohol  by  volume,  leaving  about  9.00% 
extract  in  unfermented  form. 

(6)  Fermentation  in  a  Laurent's  solution  with  the  addition  of 
■saccharose  gave,  after  eighteen  days  at  23° C,  2.09%  alcohol,  pro- 
ducing an  attenuation  from  19.68%  Balling  to  11.23%  Balling. 

(c)  Fermentation  in  a  Laurent's  solution  to  which  dextrose  had 
been  added  until  the  solution  showed  12.84%  Balling  gave  4.80% 
alcohol,  after  eighteen  days  of  fermentation  at  a  temperature  of  23° C. 
The  extract  left  after  fermentation  was  2.32%. 

YEAST  37.     FROM  ZINFANDEL  GRAPES. 

If  grown  in  grape-must  this  yeast  forms  a  thick  gray  film  on  the 
surface. 

With  Fermentation  Tubes:  (a)  10%  saccharose  solution.  The  yeast 
formed  no  gas  after  four  days,  no  turbidity  was  noticeable,  but  a 
slight  film  formation. 

(b)  Inoculation  in  a  Laurent's  solution  containing  1%  cane  sugar 
gave  the  same  result  as  the  10%  -cane-sugar  solution  above,  but  also 
turbidity.     The  microscopical  appearance  was  the  ellipsoideus  form. 

(c)  10%  grape-must.  No  gas  was  formed  in  the  closed  tube;  the 
liquid  became  turbid,  and  a  film  appeared  on  the  surface. 

For  the  Determination  of  Alcohol:  (a)  Fermentation  of  must  of 
21.67%  Balling  gave,  after  eighteen  days  at  23°C,  1.95  alcohol  by 
volume,  leaving  16.57%  extract  in  the  liquid. 

(b)  Saccharose  dissolved  in  Laurent's  solution,  showing  19.08% 
Balling,  was  reduced  to  14.56%  Balling.  The  alcohol  formed  was  only 
€.27%. 


174  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

0)  Dextrose  dissolved  in  Laurent's  solution  gave  only  0.13%  alcohoL 
The  strength  of  the  solution  was  12.84  at  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
ment. Evaporation  during  the  fermentation  process  increased  the 
Balling  to  13.84%.  This  explains  the  fact  that  12.82%  was  found 
as  the  percentage  of  extract  in  the  dealcoholized  must. 

From  the  above  results  it  is  seen  that  this  yeast,  has  very  little 
fermentative  activity.  It  maintains  its  life  by  feeding  upon  the  solid 
contents  of  the  must,  as  well  as  on  the  saccharose.  However,  it  has 
no  power  of  utilizing  the  dextrose.  The  yeast  practically  does  not 
form  alcohol. 

YEASTS  45a  AND  45b.     FROM  ZINFANDEL  GRAPES. 

A  Laurent's  solution  containing  1%  cane  sugar  was  inoculated,  and  in 
both  cases  no  gas  formation  was  noticed  in  the  closed  fermentation 
tubes.     Both  yeasts  produced  a  slight  turbidity. 

By  inoculation  in  fermentation  tubes  containing  a  10%  must,  both 
varieties  formed  a  slight  film,  but  neither  gas  nor  turbidity  was 
noticeable. 

In  regard  to  the  fermentation,  or  rather  the  production  of  alcohol 
in  two  Laurent's  solutions,  containing  respectively  saccharose  and 
dextrose,  both  varieties  of  yeasts  formed  practically  no  alcohol,  but 
reproduction  took  place. 

Analogous  experiments  carried  on  in  a  must  showing  about  21% 
Balling  gave  a  result  of  1.6%  alcohol  for  the  yeast  45a,  while  45b  gave 
an  amount  of  alcohol  less  than  0.3%. 

The  tests  for  alcohol  were  made  twenty-five  days  after  inoculation t 
and  the  fermentations  had  in  both  cases  taken  place  at  23° C. 

These  two  yeasts  belonged  to  the  varieties  of  yeasts  found  on  grapes. 
They  are  useless,  as  far  as  wine-making  is  concerned,  being  unable  to 
produce  alcohol  or  give  any  bouquet  to  the  wine.  Whether  both  belong 
to  the  same  variety  is  difficult  to  say;  the  slight  differences  noticed  in 
their  cultural  characteristics  would  hardly  suffice  to  decide  this  ques- 
tion. However,  yeast  45a  seemed  by  far  the  more  active  of  the  two 
cultures. 

YEASTS  46a  AND  46b.     FROM  BURGER  GRAPES. 

Both  yeasts  form,  when  grown  in  grape-must,  a  thick,  gray  film, 
(a)  When  grown  in  a  pure  10%  cane-sugar  solution  in  fermentation 
tubes,  neither  of  the  two  varieties  formed  any  gas  in  the  closed  tube, 
after  an  incubation  period  of  four  days  at  25° C,  but  a  gray  film  was 
present  onthe  surface  of  the  liquid  in  both  cases. 

(6)  When  Laurent's  solution  containing  1%  saccharose  was  inoc- 
ulated with  the  yeasts,  they  were  found  to  be  "no-gas"  producers. 
Strong  turbidity  resulted  in  both  cases.     So  far  the  varieties  behaved 


Bulletin  197. 


GRAPE    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


175 


alike,  but  a  microscopical  examination  showed  a  great  difference  in 
regard  to  size  and  form.  Yeast  46b  had  an  elliptical  form,  while  yeast 
46a  was  more  elongated,  forming  long  chains  of  cells,  and  highly 
reminding  of  a  Pastorianus  form. 

(c)  Both  yeasts  were  also  tried  in  fermentation  tubes  containing  a 
10%  must,  but  neither  film  nor  gas  was  noticed;  a  slight  turbidity 
resulted  in  both  cases. 

Experiments  to  determine  whether  these  varieties  formed  any  alcohol 
showed  that  the  amount  formed  in  each  case  was  very  small.  These 
results  will  be  found  in  the  table.  The  most  characteristic  fact  is  that 
these  varieties  differ  also  in  respect  to  the  amount  of  alcohol  formed. 
Yeast  46a  formed  about  twice  the  amount  of  alcohol  obtained  from  46b, 
when  grown  in  must.  The  percentages  of  alcohol  formed  in  saccharose 
and  in  dextrose  solutions  were  in  both  cases  very  small. 


Ellip. 
B.  I. 


Yeast 
26. 


Yeast 
28. 


Yeast 
37. 


Yeast 
45  a. 


Yeast 
45B. 


Yeast 
46  a. 


Yeast 
46b. 


Laurent's  Solution  with 
Saccharose. 


Must 


(  Specific  gravity--    1.0758 

}  Balling 19.68 

f  Sp.  gravity  of  dist  j  0.99694 
|  Alcohol  by  weig't    1.66 
Wine  \  Alcohol  by  vol.  _.   2.09 


,  Ext.  dealc.  liq .*.. 
[  Specific  gravity  _. 

Laurent's  Solution  with 
Dextrose. 


Must 


j  Specific  gravity. _ 

(Balling 

f  Sp.  gravity  of  dist. 
I  Alcohol  by  weig't 

Wine  -l  Alcohol  by  vol 

I  Ext  dealc.  liq.*__ 
j.  Specific  gravity ._ 

Grape  Must. 

f  Sp.  gravity  of  dist. 
Alcohol  by  weig't 

Wine  •{  Alcohol  by  vol 

I  Ext.  dealc.  liq.*__ 
{  Specific  gravity .. 


12.19 
1.0471 


1.0496 
12.84 
0.9949 

2.77 
3.49 
5.87 
1.0227 


1.0834 
21.67 

0.9859 

8.42 
10.61 

2.69 

1.0104 


1.0758 
19.68 

0.9983 

0.90 

1.14 
12.71 

1.0491 


1.0758 
19.68 

0.99694 

1.66 

2.09 
11.23 

1.0434 


1.0496  1.0496 
12.84   12.84 
0.9927  i  0.9931 


4.07 
5.10 
1.76 
1.0068 


3.81 
4.80 
2.32 
1.0090 


1.0834  1.0834 
21.67  21.67 
0.9945  '  0.9929 
3.00  i  3.99 
3.78  0.80 
12.12  11.78 
1.0468    1.0455 


1.0758 
19.68 

0.9996 

0.21 

0.27 
14.56 

1.0562 


1.0496 
12.84 

0.9999 

0.11 

0.13 
12.82 

1.0495 


1.0834 
21.67 

0.9971 

1.55 

1.95 
16.57 

1.0639 


1.0758 
19.68 

0.9999 

0.11 

0.13 
15.53 

1.0599 


1.0496 
12.84 

0.9999 

0.11 

0.13 
12.56 

1.0485 


1.0834 
21.67 

0.9976 

1.28 

1.61 
18.08 

1.0697 


1.7058 
19.68 

0.9997 

0.16 

0.20 
15.42 

1.0595 


1.0496 
12.84 

0.9997 

0.11 

0.20 
12.58 

1.0486 


1.0834 
21.67 

0.9996 

0.21 

0.27 
18.97 

1.0731 


1.0758 
19.68 

0.1 

0.32 

0.40 
15.50 

1. 


1.0758 
19.68 

0.9996 

0.21 

0.27 
15.92 

1.0614 


1.0496  1.0496 
12.84  12.84 
0.9995  0.9997 
0.11  0.11 
0.33  j  0.20 
12.30  !l2.52 
1.0475  !  1.0484 


1.0834  1.0834 
21.67  21.67 
0.9974  0.9988 
1.39  0.64 
1.75  0.80 
17.77  117.07 
1.0685    1.0658 


*Ex.  dealc.  liq.:  Extract  in  dealcoholized  liquid. 

The  series  of  experiments  indicate  that  most  of  the  yeasts  found  on 
our  California  grapes  grown  in  regions  remote  from  wine-making 
operations  are  inactive  as  regards  the  formation  of  alcohol;  and  many 
of  them  are  detrimental  to  the  wines,  producing  film  formation  and 
turbidity.  Most  of  these  varieties  also  impart  an  unpleasant  flavor 
and  taste,  and  their  general  characteristics  do  not  favor  the  production 
of  a  sound  wine  of  good  quality.  The  remedy  for  repressing  the  growth 
of  these  organisms  is  to  be  found  in  the  general  introduction  and 
application  of  pure  yeast  in  California  wineries. 


